A Morpho-Syntactical Approach To The Infinitive

A Morpho-Syntactical Approach To The Infinitive

Form

The old English infinitive had two forms : the indefinite (e.g written) and the dative case (writenne). The latter form was usually preceded by the preposition to (to writenne) and expressed the idea of purpose : “ to write “ “ in order to write”, “ for writing”. Little by little the preposition-particle to from denoting the purpose of the action came to mark the grounds , the cause , the condition of an action , so much so that in Early Modern English we find it expressing the most varied possibilities.

Here are some striking instances to be found in Shakespeare (see A. Schmidt Shakespeare-Lexicon )

1. The infinitive equivalent to a 222j92c gerund preceded by “in” or “by”

“What dost thou mean to strife beauty and to steal his breath?”

(Venus and Adonis, 934)

“I have broken your hest to say so “(The Tempest , III , 1,37)

2. The infinitive equivalent to a 222j92c conditional clause : “….to die”

“I fly not death , to fly this deadly doom.”

(Two gentlemen Of Verona , III , 1,85)

3. The infinitive equivalent to a 222j92c causal clause

“…why blame me to love you?”(“As You Like It”, V, 2,10)

“…his tongue , all impatient to speak and not see”

(“Love’s Labour’s Lost , II , 238) 

4. The infinitive employed as an attribute

“…a very virtous maid , and to be shortly of a sisterhood”

(“Measure For Measure” , II , 2 , 21)

“…not an eye that sees you but is a physician to comment on your malady.”(“Two Gentlemen Of Verona”, II , 1 , 42)

5. The active infinitive used instead of the passve

“…savage , extreme , rude , cruel , not to trust”(Sonnet ,129)

“…too hard to keep” (Love’s Labour’s Lost , I , 1 , 47)

6. Great differences from contemporary usage in inserting or omitting the particle to

“…they would not have you to stir forth.”(“J.Caesar”,II,2,38)

“I dust to wager she is honest.”(“Othello”, IV , 212)

“…How long within this mood intend you stay?”

(“A Midsummer Night’s Dream”, II , 1 , 138)

A.J Thomson and A.V Martinet register the infinitive form under the following examples:

Present Infinitive : to work , to make

Present Continuous Infinitive : to be working , to be making

Perfect Infinitive : to have worked , to have made

Perfect Continuous Infinitive : to have been working

to have been making

Present Infinitive Passive : to be made

Perfect Infinitive Passive : to have been made

Not all the verbs have infinitive. After certain verbs and expressions we use the form without to (bare infinitive named by A.J Thomson , A.V Martinet ; incomplete infinitive named by Alice Badescu ; plain infinitive by Cobb and Gardiner , and other name it short infinitive). Verbs without the particle to are to be met after :

A. can , do , may , must , shall , will

He will probably object.

(Probabil ca se va impotrivi)

They could do it today.

(Ar putea sa o faca azi)

B. need and dare , except when they are conjugated with do/did or

will/would

You need not say anything.

(Nu e nevoie sa spui nimic)

I dared not make him.

(N-am indraznit sa-l trezesc)

C. feel , hear , see and watch

I heard him open the door.

(L-am auzit deschizand usa)

I saw him leave. (L-am vazut plecand)

But see and hear in the passive take the full infinitive.

He was seen to close the door.

(A fost vazut inchizand usa)

He was heard to say that.

(A fost auzit spunand acel lucru)

The four verbs are often used with present participles :

I heard him shouting.

(L-am auzit tipand)

D. let take the bare infinitive in both active and passive. But let in the passive is often replaced by other verb :

Active : They let me know the result.(M-au anuntat rezultatul

Passive : I was told to know the result.

(Mi s-a spus sa stiu rezultatul)

E. after to make used in the meaning of to induce , to cause , to determine[5].
Make in the active takes the bare infinitive.

He made me move my car.

(M-a obligat sa mut masina)

But in the passive it takes the full infinitive :

I was made to move the car.

(Am fost obligate sa mut masina)

F. after the following modal combinations

had better would rather

had rather cannot but

had sooner cannot choose but

You had better go to bed and leave the patient to me.

(Bernard Shaw , “The Doctor’s Dilemma)

Shall we go today?

(Sa mergem azi?)

I’d rather wait till tomorrow.

(As prefera sa astept pana maine)

G. in colloquial English , particularly in the USA , after to help

He helped me solve the problem.

(M-a ajutat sa rezolv problema).

But according to Thomson and Martinet [6]to help can be followed by a full or bare infinitive.

He helped us (to) push it.

(Ne-a ajutat sa-l impingem).

When to help is in the passive , the infinitive with to is used.

I was helped to solve the problem.

(Am fost ajutat sa rezolv problema)

I cannot help but +short infinitive is frequently used in the USA , whereas in BE I cannot help +the –ing form is standard.[7]

I cannot help but laugh.

I cannot help laughing.(Nu ma pot opri din ras)

I. If two infinitives are joined by and , the to of the second infinitive is normally dropped.

I intend to sit in the garden and write letters.

(Intentionez sa stau in gradina si sa scriu scrisori)

This is not an absolute rule ; the particle to may be preserved for contrast or other stylistical reasons.

To be or not to be , that is the question.(Shakespeare , Hamlet) J. With to do when used as an auxiliary of emphasis or periphrasis

Oh , do tell us what has happened !

(Oh , spune-ne ce s-a intamplat)

K. But and except take the bare infinitive when they follow

do + anything/nothing/everything

He does nothing but complain .

(Nu face altceva decat sa se planga)

There’s nothing to do but wait.

(Nu e nimic de facut decat sa astepti)

L. The to is optional in sentences such as :

All we can do is (to) write to him.

(Tot ce putem face e sa-i scriem)

The plain infinitive, as Cobb and Gardiner name it in “Today English Grammar”, may be used by itself in questions beginning with why or why not

Why spend such a lot of money?

An exclamatory infinitive may be preceded by a subject of its own :

‘Do you think George could write a novel?’

‘George write a novel?’

The long infinitive is used after :

1. modal verbs : to have (to) , to be (to) , ought to , need (to) , dare (to) as well as modal expressions : to be able (to) , to be anxious (to) , to be bound (to) with which form a modal compound verb.[10]

I used to go there every day.

(Mergeam acolo zilnic)

He did not dare to speak.

(N-a indraznit sa vorbeasca)

In these constructions the first verb is subordinated in meaning (and usually in stress) to the second .

2. this may also be the case in constructions with : to begin ,to come , to fail , to fail , to happen , to seem , to stand , to use

I happened to meet him in town yesterday.

(L-am intalnit ieri din intamplare)

3.- after a series of adjectives used predicatively :

difficult , easy , hard , horrible , necessary , nice , right

- after nouns like : folly , mistake ,pity

- or verbs : to take , to need , to require

He was afraid to seem ungrateful if he refused.

(S-a temut sa nu para nerecunoscator daca refuza)

Similarly after the first (second , next) and the last and after the adverb about.

She was always the first to get up and the last to go to bed.

(Ea era mereu prima care se trezea si ultima care se culca)

4. after transitive verbs like : to arrange , to bear , to claim , to deserve , to forget , to learn , to forbid , to promise , to tell

We intend to go to Denmark.

(Intentionam sa mergem in Danemarca)

5. an infinitive with tomay also serve as an adjunt to a preceding noun , both to such as are related to verbs that take an infinitive –adjunt and to such as are not.

He made no attempt to deny his guilt.

(N-a facut niciun effort sa-si nege vina)

It’s the right thing to do.

(Este lucrul correct de facut)

He has a large family to keep.

(Are o familie mare de intretinut)

6. after intransitive verbs like : to agree(to) , to bother (to) , to care (to) , to come (to) to forbear (to) , to assist (to) , to remind (to) having the syntactical function of object or part of a prepositional object.

7. after adjectives like : careful (to) , content (to) , free (to) ,proud (to) , slow (to) having the function of object or part of their prepositional object.

He was free to go everywhere.

(Era liber sa mearga peste tot)

8. in expressions like: needless to say , strange to say , to put it plainly , to tell the truth to be sure , to begin with

To put it plainly , you should have told the truth.

9. to express way or manner , an infinitive after to know is preceded by how.

I do not know how to do it.

(Nu stiu cum sa procedez)

He knows how to captivate his audience.

(Stie cum sa atraga atentia publicului sau)

How is similarly used after to forget , to learn , to teach .

We have forgotten how to read.

(Am uitat cum se citeste)

When the idea of manner is weak or absent , to forget , to teach and to learn may take an infinitive without a connecting adverb.

You must learn to be patient.

(Trebuie sa inveti sa fii rabdator)

10. the infinitive with to is often used predicatively with the present or past tense of to be to express an arrangement , such as :

1. personal a. mutual (agreement)

b. one-sided (command)

2. impersonal c. (destiny)

a. We are to be married next week.

(Ne casatorim saptamana viitoare)

b. She says I am not to lay the table before twelve o’clock.

(Ea spune ca nu trebuie sa pun masa inainte de 12)

c. The worst is still to come.

(Ne asteptam la ce e mai rau)

This use of the infinitive is similar to that of the infinitive expressing purpose.

11. like the plain infinitive , the infinitive with to may be used in exclamatory sentences. These express surprise or indignation or a wish that is not likely to be fulfilled.

“To think that all his efforts to help her had gone for nothing!

My own flesh and blood to rebel!”

(Shakespeare, “The Merchant Of Venice” , III , 37)

An infinitive can be represented by to alone to avoid repetition. This is chiefly done after such verbs to hate , to intend , would like /love , make (passive) ,to mean , to want , to try , after the auxiliaries have , need , ought , and with used to , be able to and to be going to form.

Would you like to come with me? Yes , I’d love to.

(Ti-ar placea sa vii cu mine? Da.)

He wanted to go but he was not able to.

(Voia sa vina dar nu putea)

2. Aspect , Voice And Tense Of The Infinitive

Infinitive can have aspect and voice and in a conventional sense , tenses .

The term tense is used in a conventional or “relative “ sense (because a tense implies conjugation and thus the presence of subjects). On the other hand , infinitive present has been replaced here by indefinite infinitive because this type of infinitive does not imply a temporal value – it represents a generic category.

I am glad to see him.

I was glad to see him.

I shall be glad to see him.

It is the predicate which expresses the tenses.

a. Present Infinitive expresses the same time (present , past or future like the verb which precedes it)

They make (made or will make) her laugh.

(O fac (au facut-o sau o vor face ) sa rada)

The present infinitive can also present a future action :

We hope to call tomorrow.

(Speram ca vom putea suna maine)

b. Perfect Infinitive expresses a prior time to that expressed by the preceding verb.

He hopes to have done well in his work.

(El spera sa fi obtinut rezultate bune in munca sa)

The perfect infinitive is to be used after the following categories of verbs :

1. with was/were to express an unfulfilled plan or arrangement

The house was to have been ready today (but it is not)

(Casa trebuia sa fi fost gata pana astazi)

2. with should , would , might and could to form the perfect conditional

If I had seen her , I would have asked her.

(Daca as fi vazut-o as fi intrebat-o)

3. with should or ought to to express unfulfilled obligation or , in the negative , a wrong or foolish action.

He should have helped her cross the street.

(Ar fi trebuit s-o ajute sa treaca strada)

4. with should / would like to express an unfulfilled wish

She would have liked to see her graduate.

5. with could to express past unused ability or past possibility

I could have saved her.(but I did not)

(As fi putut s-o salvez)(dar nu am facut-o)

6. with might/could to indicate that the speaker feels upset or indignant at the non-performance of an action

She could/might have talked to me.

(Ea ar fi putut sa vorbeasca cu mine)

7. with may /might in speculations about past actions.

You may/might have told the truth.

(Ai fi putut sa spui adevarul)

8. with can’t/couldn’t to express negative deduction

The baby can’t/couldn’t have broken the glass

(Copilul n-ar fi putut sa sparga paharul)

9. with must to express affirmative deduction

He must have bought that car.

(El ar fi trebuit sa cumpere acea masina)

10. with needn’t to express an unnecessary past action

He needn’t have hurried. He is too early.

(N-ar fi trebuit sa se fi grabit. A ajuns prea repede)

The perfect infinitive can also be used after the following verbs :

1) with appear , happen , pretend , seem

Note the difference between present and perfect infinitive :

Present Infinitive

She seems to be a good runner. It seems that she is a good runner.

(Ea pare a fi o buna atleta)

Perfect Infinitive

She seems to have been a good runner. It seems that she was a good runner.

The action of the perfect infinitive is an earlier action ; it happens before the time of the main verb.

2) with the following verbs in the passive voice : to acknowledge , to believe , to consider , to find , to k now , to report , to say , to suppose, to think , to understand.

He is believed to have left the country.

(Se crede ce a parasit tara)

3) the perfect infinitive is possible but less usual with : to claim , to expect, to hope , to promise

He expects/hopes to have finished by July.

c. The perfect infinitive continuous is used after auxiliary verbs and after to appear and to seem , but it can also be used after to happen , to pretend and the passive of to believe.

She appears to have been waiting for a while.

(Se pare ca ea asteapta de ceva vreme)

It appears she has been waiting for a while.

He pretended to have been studying.

He pretented that he had been studying.

(Se prefacea ca studia).

The infinitive does not necessarily express an action or a state referring to a definite person or thing.

“To be or not to be , that is the question.”(Shakespeare , Hamlet)

(A fi sau a nu fi , aceasta este intrebarea)

In many cases , however , the action or the state denoted by the infinitivo refers to a definite person or object.

Tell him to come in time.

(Spune-i sa vina la timp)

When the action denoted by the infinitive is performed by the person or thing to whom or to which it refers , the infinitive is said to be active. These novelists of late “Victorian” age are not technically , any more than socially , revolutionaries ; but each of them had something new to say and therefore had to discover new means of expressions. (Arnold Kettle , “An Introduction to the English Novel”)

When the action denoted by the infinitive is undergone by the subject the infinitiveis in the passive voice.[19]

3. Place

The infinitive is sometimes put first for emphasis. This construction is confined to literary style.

I have my work to do , and do it I will.

(Trebuie sa-mi fac treaba , si o voi face)

Return I dare not.

(Nu voi indrazni sa ma intorc)

A superficially similar construction is illustrated by such of phrase as “Come what say ; Try as he would”. Between these and above inversions there is an essential difference however.

“ Say what you will of him , ther is not a better officer in the regiment.

And I must think , do all I can , That there was pleasure there. (Wordsworth , “Lines Written in Early Spring”)

Try as he might , he could not get the window open.

The two verbal forms are connected by a relative pronoun , by “all” or by “as” ; and the meaning of the second clause is concessive.

In the first example , with a subject pronoun in the second person , the infinitive seems to merge into the imperative. That is distinct from the imperative , however , is seen when we substitute a subject pronoun of the first person.

Say what we will of him , there is not a better officer in the regiment (Orice ai spune despre el , nu este un ofiter bun)

The short infinitive may be used by itself in questions beginning with why or why not.

Why spend so much money?

(De ce sa cheltuiesti asa multi bani?)

A suggestion made in such a question may be rejected as impossible or absurd in the following exclamatory sentence , which may again take the form of a question:

Why not apologize and ask his pardon? Ask that man’s pardon?

Never.

(De ce sa ma scuz si sa-i cer iertare?Sa-i cer acelui om iertare?

Niciodata.)

An exclamatory infinitive may be preceded by a subject of its own :

Do you think George could write a novel?George write a novel? Hardly likely.

(Crezi ca George ar scrie un roman ? George sa scrie un roman? Nicicand.)

In the last two examples we have to do with the repetition of a short infinitive from the preceding questions.[21]