THE SOCIETY AND CULTURE OF THE CELTS

THE SOCIETY AND CULTURE OF THE CELTS
FOCUSING ON IRELAND

I. BRIEF HISTORY

The Celts were a people who originated in central Europe from Indo-European stock
and became a distinct people in the Iron Age. They are distinct from their predecessor
peoples, archaeologically named the Urnfield cultures, principally in their use of iron,
their art style, the role of the horse in their lives, and the social stratification of their
society. The people living in the archaeological period called Hallstatt were the first true
Celts. The La Tene period is most representational of the Celts at their peak. There
were several migrations westward into the Iberian peninsula and the British Isles during
the Hallstatt and early La Tene periods. Opinions differ regarding whether the Irish Celts
arrived via Britain, around Scotland directly to Ireland, or north from or around the
Iberian peninsula. However, it seems apparent that whichever route they took, the first
true Irish Celts arrived during the early Hallstatt period.

The expansion of the Roman Empire put great pressure on the continental and British
Celts, whose culture was eventually wiped out through a combination of outright
destruction and assimilation into Roman culture. Ireland was never directly impacted by
Rome and retained its Celtic identity well into the fifth century A.D. Christianity spread
in Ireland in that century and although much of the Celtic identity remained, and still does
to this day, it was altered by exposure to and acceptance of the Christian faith.

II. SOCIAL STRUCTURE

The smallest unit in Celtic society was the FINE, a close, extended family
kinship group. The fine, not the individual, was what was important. Legally the
individual did not exist, except as a member of the fine and was responsible for his
set share of the fine's property and obligations.

The TUATH, a group which is most closely equivalent to the modern concept of
tribe or clan, could be made up of one or several fine and was led by the RI, or
king. Eligibility for leadership was based on blood relationship but was not
directly inherited. Any male member of the ri's DERBFINE, a kinship group extending
back five generations, was eligible to be chosen. The new ri would be selected by
the members of the tuath from among the eligible candidates. Exactly how such
selections were made is not known for certain although there are some unsubstantiated
opinions in this regard. We do know that the ri was required to be physically
unblemished and was expected to be generous in providing sumptuous feasts when
hosting guests, and these expectations would doubtless have been taken into account
by the warriors and elders when selecting a new ri.

The tuath was ruled by the ri, but not as an ultimate judge or law giver. His
role was principally in dealings outside the tuath and as a war leader. His
authority was held up and carried out by a council of nobles and assemblies of the
freemen which would be held annually, frequently in conj 242p156c unction with religious
festivals. Treaties would be declared and discussed at these assemblies and the
nobles would then see that they were adhered to.

Within the tuath, society was basically divided into three classes: the
Nobility, composed of landowners and warriors; the Aes Dana, men of art and learning,
craftsmen, and included the druids; and the Commoners or Churls who owned no land but
were free not slaves. Slavery was sometimes practiced by the Celts, but their slaves
would have been war captives and other subjugated peoples.

The Nobility, or warrior class, was that group which we know the most about from
the epics and mythology of the Celts. They were the landowners and in control of
most, if not all, of the land, herds, and flocks and most of the physical wealth of
the tuath. When not at war the noblemen spent their time conducting the business of
the day, playing board games, watching youths at field games, participating in
contests of skill and strength, hunting, and feasting.

Members of the nobility practiced fosterage, sending their young sons and
daughters to the homes of other members of the nobility for their early training and
education. At times this custom could also be used to cement alliances between
tuaths, the children of the ri of one tuath being fostered in the home of the ri of
another tuath, where they could also serve as hostages to prevent hostilities. Ties
to foster parents and siblings were very strong and often seemed to bind more tightly
than those of blood.

Craftsmanship and technical skills were highly regarded by the Celts and mastery
of a craft could alter one's social status. The possessors of those skills, the Aes
Dana, were free of other tribal obligations. They owed no military service to lord
or tuath, and were free to travel between the lands controlled by different tuaths.
Their skills were respected wherever they went and they were accepted and welcomed
without threat.

We know very little about the Commoners as a group. They were free but did not
own land and would generally have been farmers and animal husbandmen, and perhaps
less skilled craftsmen. Members of this group would have been dependant on
relationships and agreements with members of the nobility for land on which to farm
and raise their animals.

III. APPEARANCE, CLOTHING, AND CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS

The Celts were a neat and clean people and are one of the cultures credited with
inventing soap. They took great pride in themselves and their physical appearance.
Obesity was considered a disgrace and fit, sleek bodies were admired.

The Celts were larger in stature than the Romans and generally had gold or red
blonde hair and ruddy complexions. The dominance of light colored hair could be at
least partially attributed to the bleaching effect of the lime they used as hair
dressing. The men commonly wore beards and/or trailing mustaches and long flowing
hair which was stiffened with lime for battle. The women also wore their hair long,
generally in one, two, or three braids which were sometimes decorated with beads.
Women warriors may have worn their hair loose into battle. They were fond of
personal decoration and wore a lot of jewelry.

The torc or neck ring, commonly made of gold, was an almost indispensable piece
of jewelry for any self respecting Celt. Men almost always wore a belt and women
would frequently wear girdles of chain. The nobility of both sexes wore arm rings,
finger rings, ankle rings, and bracelets as well as the omnipresent torc. Brooches
were used to fasten cloaks and tunics and in multiples as decoration. Every nobleman
wore his sword or belt dagger for ornamentation as well as protection.

The Celts were fond of bright colors and wore colorful clothing, often in plaids
or stripes and frequently edged with fringes. Tunics were worn by both men and
women, generally floor length for the women and shorter, to the knee, for men.
BRACCAE, a trouser like garment, were also sometimes worn, but generally only by the
lower class, with the exception of seafarers and possibly charioteers. Even the
noblemen who went to sea frequently wore braccae for protection. It is possible that
in extremely harsh weather women may have worn braccae as well. The BRAT, a large
rectangular piece of cloth approximately 3' x 5', which was variously wrapped about
the shoulders and body as a cloak, was an integral part of any Celtic wardrobe.
Leather shoes and sandals were worn but headwear was not. Linen and wool were the
common clothing fabrics. Warriors of a certain cult, the GAESATAE, who were
particularly frenzied in their fighting furor, would go naked into battle covered
only with designs drawn on their bodies in blue dye made from woad and their torcs
and other jewelry.

Wealth within Celtic society was based on land and stock ownership. There is
evidence that in mainland Europe land was more highly valued, but in Ireland cattle
was of greater significance in determining one's wealth.

Land was generally owned in common by the fine, but its use was probable
determined by the head of the fine. The members of the fine could have worked the
land for themselves or with slaves, but portions of it also would have been leased
out to landless freemen in exchange for goods and services. A nobleman's status and
position would have been improved by having a number of "clients" who owed him goods
and services for his protection and assistance.

Rank, position, and status within the nobility of the tuath was determined by
individual strength and skill. Perhaps a more insightful phrasing might be to say
that one's rank and position was based upon others perception of one's physical
prowess.

Boasting of one's achievements and victories in battle, as well as the
achievements and victories of one's ancestors, was an integral part of Celtic
society. Display of physical wealth, such as an abundance of gold and jewelry was
also very important. Celts were quick to take offense at the slightest hint of a
slur upon their honor or physical abilities and would contest, even unto death, to
defend their reputation. These differing aspects of the Celtic character can be seen
as various methods of building up and maintaining an image in the eyes of others.

Physical wealth, in land, cattle, and gold, also contributed to a Celt's status
in his society, but this could also be viewed as further demonstration of his
physical prowess. One inherited wealth taken from enemies by one's forefathers and
one increased this wealth by taking goods from conquered foes, thus wealth was
evidence that a warrior was strong and powerful.

IV. HOME AND POSSESSIONS

The Irish Celts, generally speaking, did not live in communities or villages as have
peoples in later times. Each fine would have had its own homestead, self-sufficient and
independant. Each homestead would have its own defensive embankment or palisade for
protection against raiders surrounded by the fields and pastorage it owned. In times of
severe danger the entire tuath might have retreated to a hilltop fortification, but they
did not normally live under such close conditions.

Each homestead might have consisted of such structures as the main house or
hall, a bread oven, a cheesehouse, drying racks for grain, a husking/winnowing area,
a smithy or woodshop, livestock pens, and a granary or storage area - perhaps
underground. The main house or hall where sleeping, eating, and cooking took place
was simple in plan, generally circular and sometimes half sunk in the ground. Stone,
or more commonly wood, would have been used in the construction of the buildings
which would have been roofed with thatch or perhaps shingles. The hall would have
had a central hearth with a hole in the roof to allow smoke to escape. This central
common area would have been surrounded by cubicles partitioned off with leather or
wickerwork panels. If it were the ri's home the main house or hall would have been
larger to accomodate large gatherings of warriors for councils or feasts, and perhaps
rectangular rather than round. Each homestead would have been surrounded by the
fields it controlled and the fields would have been bordered by ditches or stone walls.

Furnishings were sparse. Beds were simple pallets of furs, perhaps a thin
mattress stuffed with grass or moss, arranged on ledges or benches which hugged the
perimeter of the hall. The Celts did not use chairs and squatted or sat on cushions
and furs on the floor with a few low tables scattered about. Iron firedogs would
have sat on the hearth as would a large cooking cauldron of bronze or iron.

Their pottery ranged from crude, utilitarian items made within each household to
the fine quality work produced by skilled potters. Whether made at home or obtained
by trade, such items would have been richly decorated. A rotary hand mill was also a
fixture in every Celtic home, as was a loom for the weaving of cloth.

V. TRADES AND SKILLS

Iron was readily available and household items which suffered heavy use, like
the fire dogs, cooking utensils, and weapons would have been made of this durable
metal. The Celts were skilled metalworkers and fashioned the majority of their metal
goods themselves. They not only worked metals, but if the location were suitable,
they mined it as well. In addition to iron they worked bronze and precious metals.
Bronze was rarer than iron, since in most areas its component metals had to be
obtained by trade, and therefore was used for decorative purposes, an occasional
weapon, and items which would receive less wear and tear. It was also occasionally
enamelled. Gold and silver, even more rare, were used for jewelry and ornamentation.

The Celts were adept woodworkers also and, where location made boats useful,
made great ships of oak with iron fittings and anchor chains. Their ships had sails
of hide and soft leather. They produced fine chariots and wagons as well as other
high quality wooden goods.

The Celts were skilled imitators and adept at adapting techniques and methods
they learned from other peoples to suit their own purposes. They practiced
agriculture and were familiar with the benefits of crop rotation, letting land lie
fallow for a period of time, and fertilizing with manure. They were also shrewd
businessmen and traders. Celtic trade between Normandy and southern Britain was
common and trade with Mediterranean cultures was well established. Salt, animal
skins and furs, raw metals, amber, and perhaps grain and finished metal goods were
traded for luxury goods such as glass, coral, precious metal goods and raw metals,
and large quantities of wine. Among themselves the principal basis of exchange was
cattle, but the Celts did use some gold and silver coinage when dealing with other
peoples.

VI. FOODSTUFFS AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

The Celts were renowned for their love of good food and drink. They brewed
their own mead, beer, and ale and imported wine from Mediterranean peoples. The
Romans were offended by the Celts' practice of drinking their wine neat, undiluted
with water. The principal dish at feast was meat, either boiled or roasted on a
spit. The best warrior at a feast would be awarded the choisest joint of meat
prepared for the guests and often fights would erupt for that distinction. Game such
as deer, bear, and boar were often on the menu although the favorite meats were pork
and beef. Fowl and fresh or salt fish, including such things as seal, whale, and
dolphin were also included in the Celtic diet. They wasted no part of the animals
they ate, utilizing the skins, fur, horn, bones, feathers, and so on in many ways.

Their principal grains were wheat, barley, oats, and rye. Other seeds and grains were
collected from the wild as well for use in gruel and porridges. They cultivated leguminous
vegetables like peas and beans, and may have domesticated bees as well as collecting
honey from wild bees to use as sweetening and in making mead. Cattle, sheep, and goats
were domesticated not only for their meat but also for milk. Pigs and horses were also
domesticated by the Celts.

VII. WARFARE

Celtic horses were smaller than todays animals and were raised and trained as
draft animals, for riding into battle, and as chariot horses. Chariots were an
important part of Celtic warfare, a method which was very effective against the
Romans. Warrior and driver were a strong team. The driver would bring the chariot
to the point of battle, at which the warrior would leap from the chariot and engage
the enemy. The driver would then wheel off to one side, ready to come sweeping in to
retrieve the warrior when needed.

Another Celtic tactic in warfare was to begin a confrontation with almost ritual
taunting and hurling insults at the enemy before engaging in battle. The apparition
of a naked, painted warrior with lime spiked hair screaming insults and working
himself into a frenzy by aclaiming his previous exploits would have been a daunting
one, as would seeing a collection of severed heads hanging from a Celtic enemy's belt
or chariot.

The Celts' principal weapons were the slashing sword and spear or javelin. Shields
were common and were made of wicker or wood, sometimes covered with leather.
Bronze or bronze covered shields were sometimes made for ceremonial or votive uses.
Body armor and helmets were not in common use although they were known. Helmets,
when worn, often had animal crests or horns and were made of bronze for the wealthy
warrior and perhaps leather for his less fortunate counterpart. Bows and slings were
sometimes used as well, but were not common.

Until the arrival of the Romans, Celtic warfare was primarily among themselves.
Intertribal warfare was common and at times may have been largely a matter of show,
the warriors lining up in full battle dress and screaming insults at one another, the actual
conflict then being settled by individual combat between the champions of each tuath.
Raids for cattle or land or to avenge some insult or injury were frequent. This tendency
to fight among themselves was a severe detriment to the Celts when the Romans did
come on the scene. They were never able to truly unify to fight the common threat.

VIII. RELIGION AND BELIEFS

Seemingly in opposition to their warlike and belligerent demeanor was the Celts' love
of music, whether vocal or instrumental, and their religion, which was very much in
harmony with their natural surroundings. The Celts measured time by nights followed by
days, not the reverse as we do today. They even had a calendar, kept by the druids,
which was based on lunar motion rather than solar. Months, as well as days within each
month, were believed to be auspicious or inauspicious and feasts, raids, and other
activities would have been planned accordingly. Their seasons were
separated and identified by four major religious festivals. These festivals were multiple
day activities, the observance of which generally included something like market fairs,
athletic competitions, councils, and feasts, as well as the ritual religious observances,
whatever they may have been.

Imbolc, held in February, celebrated the coming into milk of the ewes and was a
pastoral festival of fertility and growth.

Beltaine, celebrated in May, was also related to the fertility of cattle and crops and
honored the Druids. Beltaine is commonly associated with fire rites. Today the most
well known of the Beltaine fire rites had to do with driving the herds between bonfires,
through their smoke, for purification and protection against evil spirits.

Lugnasa, celebrated from mid July to mid August, was the harvest festival. A
great feast would be held on August 1st to celebrate the richness of the harvest and
to honor the gods.

Samhain heralded the start of the new year. It was celebrated on October 31 and
commemorated the creation of order out of chaos and the beginning of the world.
During this celebration the division between this world and the Otherworld dissolved
and the spirits roamed the earth. It was a dangerous time when humanity was
vulnerable and exposed to the supernatural world.

The Otherworld of Celtic belief was the dwelling place of the gods and other
supernatural beings. It was a place of feasting and joy. It was not a heaven, a
reward such as some modern religions believe in, but a magical counterpart of the
natural world which every person, regardless of behavior in life, would enter after
death. The Otherworld was as real to the Celts as the natural world, and although
humans did not normally visit it prior to their death, stories of such visits - or
visits to the natural world by Otherworld folk, were accepted as valid.

On mainland Europe the Celts had sacred places, the exact use of which has still
not been fully determined. These sacred places might have been where they held their
religious festivals and made sacrifices. Such places might have consisted of a
clearing in the deep woods, a special spring, a wood or stone temple structure, or a
ritual/votive shaft or well. One or more of these elements might have been included
in any given sacred place and been surrounded with an earthwork, palisade, or ditch,
usually circular or oval in plan. No such sites have been positively identified in
Ireland according to the most recently published of my source which discuss such
things.

Water sources were especially sacred, whether or not they were enclosed in a
ritual site. They frequently were believed to possess healing powers and were also
believed to be entrances to the Otherworld. Gifts were given in exchange for the use
of sacred waters or special divine considerations and spoils of war offered in token
thanks for victory. Gifts of carven figures were often given for healing and perhaps
other types of divine intervention. Such votive offerings were tossed into springs,
rivers, or down sacred wells as gifts to the gods.

It has been established that the Celts did practice human sacrifice, but the context
of such sacrifices is not known. The widely circulated stories of wicker men filled with
living people who were then sacrificed by burning the figure are largely unsubstantiated.
It is clear however that human sacrifice was not as frequent or common as Caesar
implied, and when carried out, the victims were most frequently war captives or
criminals.

The Celts had numerous gods and goddesses. Each tuath would have their own
gods. Some of the gods were recognized by a number of tribal groups by derivations
of the same name or recognized as being the same through their spheres of influence
although they might have held different names in different areas. Many of the
smaller gods and goddesses were location specific, having dominion over a certain
spring, river, clearing, wood, or hill. Presented here is a brief summary of gods
and goddesses which have been identified as having the greatest significance to the
widest distribution of Celtic peoples.

Each tuath generally had a divine father or tribal god who was linked to the
welfare of the tuath and the power and authority of the ri. This god was responsible
for the well being and protection of the tuath. If the ri was acceptable to the
divine father god, the tuath prospered. If he was unacceptable, the tuath
languished. This father god also led the tuath in war. This god was sometimes
absorbed into the identity of other gods such as Lugh or Cernunnos.

Lugh was a very versatile god. He was believed to be skilled at and have
dominion over all the arts and horsemanship, a warrior god, inventor of games, patron
of travellers and commerce. He is the most universal of the Celtic gods.

Cernunnos, know more often as the Horned God or Antlered God, was the ruler and
protector of the animals. Most commonly a single god with stag antlers, he was
intimately linked with fertility and prosperity, especially of herds and flocks, but
also of men. Some Celts had a second horned god, the Bull or Ram Horned God, who was
a war god, a phallic warrior and bestower of fertility and protector of flocks.

The blacksmith god, sometimes named Goibhnui, was skilled at smithcraft and
patron of that art and others. He was also the god of healing, due to the central
role of iron in Celtic life and the belief that it had magical properties. Water
sources and thermal springs were also under his dominion. Some groups believed that
Goibhnui was one aspect of a triad of craftsman gods: Goibhnui the smith, Luchta the
wright who had dominion over woodworking, and Creidhne who had dominion over
assembly and fasteneners.

There was also Ogmios/Oghma, the patron of eloquence, and Donn, the god of the
dead and ruler of the Otherworld.

Goddesses in Celtic belief were generally triads and most often their influence was
tied to a specific geographic area. The earth mother, raven, or war goddess sometimes
was and sometimes was not such a triad. She was the consort of the divine father or
tribal god and was concerned with the fertility of the land, crops, and herds, as well as
people. She would also defend the tuath when threatened using magic rather than
physical weapons.

Brigid, also spelled Brigit and Brighid, was one triadic goddess for whom we
have a name. Her influence was widespread as a mother goddess, patroness of arts and
crafts, healing, poetry and traditional learning, livestock and produce, and the
rites of spring. Each of her three aspects had the same name and one version of the
division of responsibility had her first aspect being concerned with poetry and
traditional learning, her second aspect concerned with healing, and the third with
smithcraft.

The triadic goddesses, whether as embodiments of the earth mother or not, were
very powerful and their dominion always included fertility aspects and frequently
magical warfare. The mother goddess aspect of the triads, concerned with fertility
and sexual pleasure, is most frequently depicted in the nurturing role. Some modern
fantasy literature has interpreted her three aspects as the maid, who was virginal
and innocent, the mother/mate, who was nurturing and sexual, and the crone,
representing age and death. I have found nothing to support the maiden and crone
aspects in my research. Various triadic goddesses were associated with war, healing
waters and woodlands, and mastery of animals.

Another named goddess, sometimes triadic, sometimes not, was Epona, also
referred to as the Horse Goddess. She was variously depicted with, seated on, or as
a horse and her influence was widespread. Only one of my sources offered specific
information as to what her field of influence or dominion might have been. That
source refers to her as a protectress of horses and also as having fertility and
maternal concerns.

There were gods and goddesses of places like sacred trees, clearings, wells, and the
like. Most male gods were associated with a female consort, often mother goddess
figures. Shapeshifting was common among Celtic gods and goddesses who often took
the form of their favored animals.

Animals held great significance in the religious beliefs of the Celts. Birds
were linked with the gods as bringers of omens and messengers. Swans in particular,
if portrayed wearing gold or silver chains, were supernatural, often gods in bird
form. Ravens were special favorites as messengers of the gods and their calls were
considered prophetic. Large bodies of information exist about what the call of a
raven, from certain directions, at certain times, and so on, could prophesy. Wrens
were also considered prophetic in this way. Geese were also sacred and associated
with various deities. They were particularly connected with deities having war or
healing attributes. The boar, often symbolizing strength and power, and the pig,
favored as food by both men and gods, both had ritual significance as well. The stag
was associated with the Horned god. The bull and the horse were associated with the
gods also. Rams and serpents frequently appear in ritual context and occasionally
dogs. The salmon was regarded as the holder of Otherworld wisdom and a symbol for
sacred rivers and pools. The salmon was also considered prophetic as was the trout.

Magic and ritual was how humans had interraction with the gods. The Celtic gods
and goddesses were not omnipotent or incorruptible as the modern, western religious
usage of the word implies. They were simply supernatural, immortal or near immortal
counterparts to humanity with the added power of magical abilities. They were subject
to the same whims, desires, and jealousies as humans. They were not believed to
normally intervene in man's affairs, but could be persuaded to do so by
appropriate sacrifices and entreaties. They were not worshipped in the way that
Christian, Islamic, and Jewish people worship God today.

The cult of the head, as the universal celtic practice of head collecting has
come to be called, was only quasi religious. The head was believed to be the seat of
the soul or essence of a person. It was a symbol of divinity and the seat of all
desirable qualities. The head was believed to be capable of remaining alive after
being removed from the body to sing, tell stories, offer advice, and hold the power
to avert evil. Heads were collected and kept for several reasons and those reasons
are closely entertwined. It is therefore difficult to say which would be the most
important. The head of a fallen enemy could be a talisman of victory and power, the
magic inherant in the head could increase one's personal power and/or avert evil, or
the possession of an enemy's head could prevent that enemy from being reborn, either
physically or spiritually. The heads of one's ancestors could be good luck
talismans, avert evil, and offer advice or entertainment.

IX. THE DRUIDS

The druids were responsible for all ritual and for all contact with the gods.
The gods were only accessible through the druids, except for the divine father god of
the tuath who could be contacted by any member of his tuath. The druids were highly
respected and very powerful. They were the teachers, doctors, and lawyers of Celtic
society.

In actuality there were three different groups of learned people with distinct
responsibilities, one of which was called Druids. These three groups have become
identified together under the general term druid. The BARDS were poets and singers,
capable of enhancing or destroying one's reputation and position with a song or
story. The FILID were seers and soothsayers, diviners of omens and portents, who
were responsible for rituals and sacrifices. The DRUIDS were teachers, philosophers,
and lawyers.

Members of this last group, properly called the Druids, were reservoirs of all
knowledge and history, law and tradition. They were the ultimate authority in matters
sacred and mundane. They were referred to for answers about everything from crop
failures to disputes over property. Their knowledge and expertise encompassed a vast
body of knowledge about the natural world, the movement and habits of animals,
properties and locations of useful plants, and the movement and influences of the moon
and stars. The laws, history, and traditions of all Celtic life were stored in their highly
trained memories.

The training process to become a druid, of any of the three groups, could take as
long as twenty years. Students were taught by endless repetition of the words of the
master until the information was memorized. Although many druids could read and write
and occasionally used writing when dealing with other peoples, they disdained its use
where matters of knowledge and tradition were concerned. The Celts felt that such
information should be learned by memory and that writing was a final resort for those
whose mental capacity was inadequate for memorizing this material. It may also be that
they did not want to risk this important, often critical, information to a medium which
might fall into the wrong hands and be used against their people.

Legal matters were controlled and decided by the Druids. They ruled on matters
of inheritance, property, marriage, settlement of honor claims, and so on. Their
decisions in these matters were based on generations of precedent and tradition
learned in their years of training.

X. TRADITION AND LAW

Each individual had his "honor price" which reflected his worth in the fine.
Any injury or death inflicted by another person required that compensation be paid to
the fine of the injured party. This recompense would be assessed against the fine of
the offending party whose members must then share this expense. This compensatory
amount, when paid, would be distributed among the members of the injured party's
fine. An individual's share, whether it be expense to be paid or recompense
received, would be determined by his rank and position in the fine and was related to
his own "honor price".

The Celts were a proud and honorable people, at least by their own standards.
Truth was highly revered and regard for one's honor was paramount. Few things were
outlawed, as we view laws today, but if one were caught doing something "wrong", such
as stealing or murder, it was a matter of honor to admit the trespass and make proper
restitution.

As previously mentioned, most land ownership was in common among the members of
the fine. There was some individual land ownership however. Land could be given as a
gift or bequeathed to someone, although inheritance was generally restricted to fine
members. Outright sale of land was rare and generally was also restricted to within the
fine. Among the British Celts it was acceptable for a woman to own or inherit land. This
was not the case in Ireland. Female ownership of land was the exception among the Irish
Celts rather than the rule. A woman could be given land as a gift, but she could not
inherit, because the land would then pass out of the fine when she married.

There were several forms of marriage in Celtic society, including polygamy and
concubinage. Some forms were even temporary. Partners brought goods equally to the
marriage property. Matters of inheritance by wives, children, and other family members,
particularly in regard to polygamous marriages, were strictly regulated by law. Fidelity
was not an issue for the Celts and alliances between consenting adults, married or not,
was accepted. Divorce was possible in most marriage forms.

Although husbands held the power of life or death over their wives and children,
women were generally highly regarded. Women could be respected members of the
community and even warriors if they chose. Warrior households and schools run by
women, while not common, did exist. The warrior school of Scathach, for example, was
well known and respected in the world portrayed in the legends of Cu Chulainn.

XI. CONCLUSION

The legends of Cu Chulainn and other epic tales of Celtic life, although
portraying the lives of heroes and divine or semi-divine persons, provide us with a
window into the world of the Celts. These legends, maintained over the centuries by
word of mouth until written down by Irish clerics in the 8th and 9th centuries, can
be established as having been a living part of Celtic life and belief until the
fourth and fifth centuries A.D. Although somewhat altered by the attitudes of the
priests and clerics who committed them to writing, the picture they give us of the
lifestyle of the Celts is supported in a limited way by archaeological evidence.

The physical evidence provided by archaeology is limited in what it can prove or
disprove. Theories proposed regarding the lifestyle of the Celts by trained
anthropologists based on this physical evidence and the lifestyle depicted in the epic
tales are very similar. Thus these diverse forms of evidence are considered to
corroborate one another. Religious beliefs and the whys of behavior cannot be absolutely
proven by these methods, but the theories arrived at by studying artistic and sculptural
depictions and artifacts found at sacred and other sites are the closest we are likely to
get to reading the minds of a people long dead.

Future discoveries may yet alter or refine our understanding of the people known as
the Celts. Further knowledge about the Celts and other early peoples can only enrich the
lives and knowledge of those of us who make the effort to learn about them.

by Kathryn L. Pierce