ELECTORAL SYSTEM IN CHINA, LYBIA
AND
UNITED
ARAB EMIRATES
CHINA.The main types of policies are the ones held
by the Republic of China's deciders.So the election system is dictated by the
heads of the Republic. Elections in the
People's Repubic of China take two forms. Direct 818x232i elections occur for village councils in designated
rural areas, and for the local People's Congress in all areas. All other levels
of the People's Congress up to the National People's Congress, the national
legislature, are indirectly elected by the People's Congress of the level
immediately below. Executive positions, including the President, the State
Council and provincial governors are indirectly elected by the People's
Congress of the relevant level.
Direct elections in the People's Republic of China take two
forms: elections for village leader in selected rural villages and elections for
local people congresses. Under the Organic Law of the Village Committees, all
of China's
approximately 1 million villages are expected to hold competitive, direct
elections for subgovernmental village committees. A 1998 revision to the law
called for improvements in the nominating process and enhanced transparency in
village committee administration. The revised law also explicitly transferred
the power to nominate candidates to villagers themselves, as opposed to village
groups or Chinese Communist Party (CCP) branches. According to the Ministry of
Civil Affairs, as of 2003 the majority of provinces had carried out at least
four or five rounds of village elections.
The directly elected local
people's congresses form the foundation tier of the indirectly elected system
of people's congresses, each of which forms the legislature at the
corresponding level of government. Each people's congress then conducts an
election for the next higher level of people's congress, culminating in
elections for the national legislature: the National People's Congress. The NPC has 3,000-3,500
members, elected for five year terms. Deputies are elected (over a three month
period) by the people's congresses of the country's 23 provinces, five
autonomous regions and the four municipalities directly under the Central
Government, the special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macau and the
armed forces. The size of each college of delegates is related to the number of
electors in the constituency. 36 deputies are elected in Hong
Kong.
The people's congress at each
level of government - other than the village level in rural areas, which hold
direct elections - elects candidates for executive positions at that level of
government. While some cities and provinces have experimented with competitive
elections, most positions are still filled through single-candidate approval
votes.There are two forms of single-candidate approval votes. For
"elected" positions such as the President of the People's Republic of
China,
delegates to the National People's Congress may approve or disapprove the
nomination, or may write in the name of another candidate. The single candidate
is usually nominated by or with the approval of the Communist Party of China.
There are two forms of single-candidate
approval votes. For "elected" positions such as the President of the
People's Republic of China,
delegates to the National People's Congress may approve or disapprove the
nomination, or may write in the name of another candidate. The single candidate
is usually nominated by or with the approval of the Communist Party of China. However,
some candidates chose to write in other names. The single candidate is usually
nominated by or with the approval of the Communist Party.
LYBIA's political system is
theoretically based on the political philosophy in Muammar al-Gaddafi's Green
Book, which combines socialist and Islamic theories and rejects
parliamentary democracy and political parties. In reality, Qadhafi exercises
near total control over the government.
The office of head of state is
not expressed in a specific title reflecting that role, ten years as combined
Head of State and Head of government of the Libyan Jamahiriya
("state of the masses"), styled Chairman of the Revolutionary Command
Council, formally transferred both qualities, to the General secretaries of the
General People's Congress (comparable to a Speaker) respectively to a Prime
Minister, in political reality both his creatures.
Every four years the membership of
the Local People's Congresses elects by acclamation both their own leadership
and secretaries for the People's Committees, sometimes after many debates and a
critical vote. The leadership of the Local People's Congress represents the
local congress at the People's Congress of the next level and has an imperative
mandate. The members of the National General People's Congress elect the
members of the National General People's Committee (the Cabinet) by acclamation
at their annual meeting. While there is discussion regarding who will run for
executive offices, only those approved by the revolutionary leadership are
actually elected. The government administration is effective as long as it
operates within the directives of the revolutionary leadership. The
revolutionary leadership has absolute veto power despite the constitutionally
established people's democracy and alleged rule of the people. The government
controls both state-run and semi-autonomous media, and any articles critical of
current policies have been requested and intentionally placed by the
revolutionary leadership itself, for example, as a means of initiating reforms.
In cases involving a violation of "these taboos", the private press,
like The Tripoli Post, has been censored.The General People's Congress (Mu'tammar al-sha'ab al 'âmm)
consists out of circa 2700 representatives of the Basis People's Congresses.
The GPC is the legislative forum
that interacts with the General People's Committee, whose members are
secretaries of Libyan ministries.
Political parties were banned by
the Prohibition of Party Politics Act Number 71 of 1972. According to the
Association Act of 1971, the establishment of non-governmental organizations
(NGOs) is allowed. As they are required to conform to the goals of the
revolution, however, the number of NGOs in Libya is small in comparison with
neighboring countries. Unions do not exist as such. However, the numerous
professional associations are integrated into the state structure as a third
pillar, along with the People's Congresses and Committees, though they do not
have the right to strike. Professional associations send delegates to the
General People's Congress, where they have a representative mandate.
UNITED ARAB
EMIRATES. The relative political and financial influence of each emirate
is reflected in the allocation of positions in the federal government. The ruler of Abu Dhabi,
whose emirate is the UAE's major oil producer, is president of the UAE.
The ruler of Dubai,
which is the UAE's commercial center and a significant oil producer, is vice
president and prime minister.Since achieving independence in 1971, the UAE has
worked to strengthen its federal institutions. Nonetheless, each emirate still
retains substantial autonomy, and progress toward greater federal integration
has slowed in recent years. A basic concept in the UAE Government's development
as a federal system is that a significant percentage of each emirate's revenues
should be devoted to the UAE central budget.
Administratively, the UAE is a federation of
seven emirates, each with its own ruler. The pace of local government reform in
each emirate is set primarily by the ruler. The federation has a Federal
Supreme Council. The Supreme Council consists of the individual rulers of the
seven emirates. The President and Vice-President are elected by the Supreme
Council every five years. Although unofficial, the Presidency is de facto
hereditary to the Al Nahyan clan of Abu Dhabi
and the Premiership is hereditary to the Al-Maktoom clan of Dubai. The Supreme Council also elects the
Council of Ministers, while an appointed 40-member Federal National Council,
drawn from all the emirates, reviews proposed laws. The constitution
established the positions of president (chief of state) and vice president,
each serving 5-year terms; a Council of Ministers (cabinet), led by a prime
minister (head of government); a supreme council of rulers; and a 40-member
National Assembly, a consultative body whose members are appointed by the emirate
rulers.
Though the United Arab Emirates have a kind of
parliament, they had their first elections in December, 2006. The Federal
National Council (al-Majlis al-Watani al-Ittihadi) has 40 members,
representing the Emirates, half appointed by the rulers of the constituent
states and the other half elected to serve two-year terms, with only advisory
tasks. The United Arab
Emirates does not allow political parties.
As of 2004, the governments of the United Arab Emirates have been
accused by several human rights organisations of acting in contravention of the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights in the country's failure to allow freedom
of expression. The Barnabas Fund organization cites that the Dubai emirate removed the right of appeal
against deportation by expatriates accused of so called religious crimes, such
as trying to convert a Muslim to another religion. Amnesty International lists
further problems relating to human rights on its website, such as the mass
detainment of 250 persons related to the United States-led War on Terror, the
ill treatment of prisoners in prison, and the continued use of flogging and the
death penalty.
