SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY

Topics Psychologists Study

Psychology covers a broad range of subjects. They run the gamut from abnormalities to zero population growth.

Psychologists study basic functions such as learning, memory, language, thought, emotions, and motives. We are concerned with socially vital topics too: among them, divorce, rape, racism, sexism, violence, conservation, and pollution. We investigate development across the life span from birth to death. We are involved in health - mental and physical - and in health care. We try to understand how feelings contribute to physical illnesses, such as cancer and heart disease. We rehabilitate alcoholics, stroke victims, and people with spinal cord injuries. We treat people who are distressed emotionally. We even design machines that are responsive to people

Psychology overlaps with other social sciences, especially sociology. But whereas sociologists direct their attention to groups, group processes, and social forces, social psychologists focus on group and social influences on individuals. The emphasis in psychology is on the individual human being.

Psychology and biology are also closely allied. Physiological psychologists, who are sometimes called psychobiologists, focus on the ways in which behavior and mental functioning are related to biology. They explore the roles of the brain and the rest of the nervous system in functions like memory, language, sleep, attention, movement, perception, hunger, sex, hunger, and joy. They study brain disease and injury and their treatment. They evaluate the impact of drugs.

Definition of psychology

4 The word "psychology" is derived from the Greek word meaning "study of the mind or soul." Today psychology is usually defined as the science that focuses on behavior and mental processes - in all animals. There are a number of key words in our definition: "science," "behavior," "mental processes."

5 You probably have at least a vague notion about what a science is. For now, all we'll say about a science is that it offers disciplined, rational procedures for conducting valid investigations and building up a body of c 19319r1713t oherent and cohesive information. A little later, we will be explaining scientific practices.

6 Psychologists use the word "behavior" very broadly. For many of us, behavior covers just about everything that people and animals do: actions, emotions, ways of communicating, developmental processes, mental processed.

6 There is some debate about whether mental processes are behavior, so our definition mentioned these functions separately. The term "mental process" includes forms of cognition, or ways of knowing: among them, perceiving, attending, remembering, reasoning, and solving problems. Dreaming, fantasizing, wishing, hoping, and anticipating are also mental processes.

Psychology Today

7 We defined psychology as a single discipline, as is generally done. However, the field is really a collection of subfields. Each has its own unique characteristics and requirements; and the sum total might reasonably be called psychological studies rather than psychology (Koch, 1981). The major subfields of psychology are described in Table 1-1.

8 Why do psychologists specialize? The main reason is the vast range of psychology. To appreciate its giant dimensions, consider a few facts. Psychological Abstratcs - a journal that summarizes articles on psychology - listed more than 13,000 items for the year 1978 alone. A journal devoted to reviewing books - Contemporary Psychology - now receives one new psychology book nearly every working hour of every day of the year. The prime source for information about psychological tests lists upward of 77,000 tests (Buros, 1978). [.]

9 The largest percentage of doctorate-holding American psychologists - close to 43 percent - are engaged in direct human services. They counsel, test, and plan programs in mental health clinics, government agencies, schools, prisons, and the like. Another 31 percent primarily teach and do research at institutions of higher learning. An additional 3 percent do research in other settings. About 8 percent are administrators: deans, superintendents of schools, directors of clinics, training programs, consultant services, and so on. Another 4 percent apply psychology in industrial settings (n) (Throughout this text, a black box, (n), marks an appropriate point to read the boxed insert.

nBOX PSYCHOLOGISTS, PSYCHIATRISTS, PSYCHOANALYSTS Do you confuse psychologists with psychiatrists? Do you know the differences between psychiatrists and psychoanalysts? For many people, these names conjure up the image of a "shrink." By now it should be clear that psychologists play a number of roles and that many do not fit the popular stereotype at all. Clinical psychologists may resemble psychiatrists and psychoanalysts. The three professionals frequently work in mental health settings, diagnosing and treating psychological problems. The primary distinctions come from their training and specialization. Clinical psychologists usually hold a Ph. D. degree in psychology or some similar degree (doctor of education or doctor of psychology). To earn a Ph.D., clinical psychologists spend about five years in graduate school studying normal and abnormal behavior, diagnosis (including testing), and treatment. They learn to conduct research to further our understanding of these subjects. During the course of their studies, they also serve an internship to learn firsthand from practitioners about serving troubled people. After completing their education, some clinical psychologists see patients in mental health or medical settings. Many - regardless of setting - participate in research programs. Psychiatrists go through medical school, receiving a doctor of medicine (M.D.) degree. To qualify as psychiatrists, most serve a three-year residency in a mental health setting, typically a mental hospital. There they are trained to detect and treat emotional disturbances. Although they may come to prefer nonmedical treatment techniques, psychiatrists have special expertise in medical procedures (use of drugs, typically). Those working in health settings often become administrators. In theory, anybody can become a psychoanalyst. Candidates must complete an intensive course of study on Freud's personality theories and treatment methods (known as psychoanalysis) at a recognized training institute (often a four-year commitment). In addition, would-be analysts must be psychoanalyzed themselves and supervised for several years while treating patients. The training may easily take seven years or longer. In the United States, most psychoanalytic training schools accept only physicians.  (Roughly 10 percent of American psychiatrist call themselves psychoanalysts.)

TABLE 1-1

Major Specialists in Psychology

Historical Perspectives

10 Ever since our ancestors appeared on earth, some 4 to 10 million years ago, human beings have probably been trying to understand themselves and each other. Although Aristotle (384-322 b.c is sometimes called the "father of psychology," written speculation about psychological matters did not begin with the Greek philosopher. Hundreds of years before him, the earliest philosophers on record were dealing with questions about human behavior. [.]

11 We now skip over thousands of years of philosophical investigation and begin our brief survey of the history of psychology with an account of events that occurred in the twentieth century. Early in this century, rival movements in psychology arose and evolved. Each helped shape our current loosely knit field (Kimble, 2984). Although contemporary psychologists no longer belong to specific movements, many identify with one of four major perspectives: behavioristic, cognitive, humanistic, or psychoanalytic.

Humanistic View

12 Humanistic psychologists are united by a common goal, to focus on "what it means to be alive as a human being."

Assumptions of Humanists

13 Most humanistic psychologists subscribe to the European philosophy called phenomenology. It holds that people see the world from their own  unique perspectives. To obtain valid knowledge about any human quality or experience, one must focus on it from different frames of reference, as diverse individuals experience it. In other words, subjective interpretation is central to all human activity and cannot be ignored.

14 The humanists share these additional attitudes:

1 Although psychologists must gather knowledge, their major concern should be service. Humanists want to expand and enrich human lives by helping people understand themselves and develop to the fullest. They assume that people are basically good.

16 2 Psychologists should study living human beings as wholes. Compartmentalizing people by functions such as perception, learning, and motivation does not produce meaningful information.

3 Significant human problems should be the subjects of psychological investigations. Among humanistic concerns are responsibility, life goals, commitment, fulfillment, creativity, loneliness, and spontaneity.

Psychoanalytic, behavioristic, and cognitive psychologists seek to uncover general laws of functioning that apply to everybody. The humanists emphasize the individual, the exceptional, and the unpredictable.

19 5 Methods of study are secondary to the problems studied. Of all psychologists, the humanists use the broadest range of research tools - from relatively objective, scientific techniques to subjective ones, like introspection and analysis of literature. Humanistic psychologists consider intuition a valid source of information.

Humanistic Research: On Self-Actualization

20 Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) was a leading figure in the humanistic movement. In the following excerpt, he describes beginning his classic research on people who achieved personal fulfillment, or "actualized" their own potential:

21 My investigations on self-actualization were not planned to be research and did not start out as research. They started out as the efforts of a young intellectual to try and understand two of his teachers whom he loved, adored, and admired, and who were very, very wonderful people. [I] sought to understand why these two people were so different from the run-of-the-mill people in the world. These two people were Ruth benedict and Max Wertheimer.

22 My own investigations began as a pre-scientific or non-scientific activity. I made descriptions and notes on Max Wertheimer, and I made note on Ruth Benedict. When I tried to understand them, think about them and wrote about them in my journal and my notes, I realized in one wonderful moment that their two patterns could be generalized. I was talking about a kind of person. I tried to see whether this pattern could be found elsewhere, and I did find it elsewhere, in one person after another. By ordinary standards of laboratory research, that is, of rigorous and controlled research, this simply was not research at all.

23 Eventually Maslow [1970] studied forty-nine persons whom he admired and considered self-actualized. Among his subjects were friends, living and dead public figures, and college students. Maslow questioned and tested the subjects themselves when he could. he also interviewed their friends and relatives. Little by little, he sketched verbal portraits of each person and analyzed the common themes. Among fifteen characteristics that distinguished self-fulfilled individuals were: being problem-centered rather than self-centered, having deep feelings of sympathy for people, and valuing solitude and privacy.

Psychoanalytic View

24 If you've never studied psychology before, the chances are you haven't heard of Fechner, Wundt, or even James until now. But you're probably well acquainted with the name of Sigmund Freud. Freud's name and ideas are so familiar that psychology is sometimes equated with his theories. But psychoanalytic theory (the name for Freudian ideas about personality, abnormality and treatment) is only one among psychological theories.

25 Freud (1856-1939) was a Viennese physician who specialized in treating problems of the nervous system. He was particularly interested in what were called neurotic disorders. These conditions are characterized by excessive anxiety and, in some cases, by depression, fatigue, insomnia, or paralysis. The symptoms are attributed to conflict or stress.

Freud's Assumptions

26 Freud's ideas are still very much alive both in their original form and in numerous modifications. Psychologists who embrace the psychoanalytic perspective usually hold these views:

1 Psychologists should study the laws and determinants of personality (normal and abnormal) and treat mental disorders.

2 The unconscious is an important aspect of personality. Bringing what is unconscious to consciousness is crucial therapy for neurotic disorders.

3 Personality is most appropriately studied within the context of a close, long-term relationship between patient and therapist. As patients report what is on their minds, therapists analyze and interpret the material and observe behavior minutely.

TABLE 1-2

A Comparison of Four Current Views of Psychology

[Extracts from: Davidoff, Linda, Introduction to Psychology, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1987]

► Read the following sentences; then identify and circle the correct form of the nouns in italics.

. Analysis/ analyses of learning is a multi-disciplinary venture requiring contributions from every branch of psychology, cognitive science, and neuroscience.

. The emphasis/ emphases on the unique importance of mothers as attachment figures has not been denied.

. It took a few experiments before the psychologist Oskar Pfungst was able to reject the theory that Clever Hans understood the various stimulus/ stimuli - the questions and could do mathematics.

. He has studied a large variety of phenomenon/ phenomena of scientific interest.

. How people experience themselves - the focus/ foci of phenomenological psychology - then becomes highly relevant to the future progress of personality psychology.

dimension (n) levels (n) fit together (v) goal (n)

complicated (adj) different (adj) psychological (adj) cognitive (adj)

beings (n) try (v) will lead (v) was (v)

areas (n) for example

What has emerged from the past century or so is that there is no simple way of understanding human _________ . People are __________ and have many sides to them. One consequence of the cognitive revolution and its aftermath was that psychologists began to recognize that a single unitary approach to psychology ______ no longer even a desirable ______. , let alone a practical one. Each different phase of psychological history left its mark, not just on the subject matter, but also on ___________ methodology. Psychologists _____ to look at human behavior from a range of different angles, so that they can get as complete a picture as possible. As a result, there are many different branches of psychology and areas of interest.

For convenience, we categorize these into general ______ but these categories are not at all exclusive, and often one topic will bring together knowledge from many __________ areas of psychology. This is because any human experience can be studied from various angles. The experience of emotion, ______ has a physiological dimension, a social _________, a personality dimension, a ______ dimension, and several more. Most modern ___________ deal with the diversity of psychological knowledge by using the concept of levels of explanation - the idea that putting together knowledge from different _________ of understanding, and different arreas of psychology, __________ us to a richer awareness of the full picture. The idea of levels of explanation helps us to see how the different ideas ___________