The syntactic features of the operator
Operators evince the following syntactic features:
a) They can be marked for negation, often enclitically, i.e. to negate a finite clause we use not immediately after the operator.
b) The operator is placed before the subject in interrogative clauses and in certain marked structures: Only then did he realize what a mess he had got himself into. Will he speak first? At no time was the entrance left unguarded.
c) The operator can carry nuclear stress to mark a finite clause as positive rather than negative. You must speak to the teacher! But I have spoken to him.
d) The operator functions in a range of elliptical clauses where the rest of the predication is omitted. The clause is understood to repeat the omitted part: Won't you try again? Yes I will.
e) The operator is the verbal element that appears in tag questions: you haven't read this book, have you? I am your best friend, aren't I?
If there is no operator in corresponding declarative sentences, the 'empty' operator do is used under the above conditions. The use of the operator do is termed do-support. The main verbs be and have are operators in the following sentences:
I haven't a car.
Is she your sister?
The structure of the Verb Phrase
Finite VPs
A finite VP is a verb phrase in which the first or only word is a finite verb, the rest of the VP (if any) consisting of non-finite verbs. Finite VPs can be distinguished as follows:
a) Finite VPs can occur as the VP of independent clauses.
b) Finite VPs have tense contrast, i.e. the distinction between present and past tenses. He is a journalist now. /Vs./ He worked as a travel agent last summer.
c) There is person concord and number concord between the subject of a clause
and the finite verb phrase.
d) Finite VPs have mood which indicates the factual, nonfactual or counterfactual status of the predication. In contrast to the unmarked indicative mood, we distinguish the marked moods imperative (used to express commands or other directive speech acts) and subjunctive (used to express a wish, a recommendation).
A clause with a finite verb phrase as its verbal element is called a finite (verb) clause. Similarly, a clause with a nonfinite verb phrase as its verbal element is called a nonfinite (verb) clause.
Nonfinite VPs
The infinitive, the ing-participle and the ed-participle are the nonfinite forms of the verb. Hence any verb phrase in which one of these forms is the first or only word (disregarding the infinitive marker to) is a nonfinite verb phrase. Such verb phrases do not normally occur as the verb phrase of an independent clause. The verb phrases in which the first element is a modal auxiliary are always finite verb phrases. Compare the following:
Finite VPs
He smokes.
Mary is having a smoke.
He must be crazy to smoke 40 a day.
You have been smoking all day.
It is essential that he smoke fewer cigarettes.
Don't smoke so much.
Nonfinite VPs
To smoke like that must be dangerous.
I regret having started to smoke.
The cigars smoked here tend to be expensive.
That was the last cigarette to have been smoked by me.
Verb complementation types
Complementation includes the elements of clause structure that are obligatory for the completion of the verb meaning, i.e. Od, Oi, C, A. By this we mean that, given the use of a particular verb in a particular sense, the sentence is complete if one of these elements is omitted. The following sentences are unacceptable:
*I put the book (SPOA)
*He resembled (SPO)
In some cases a direct object or object complement in one of the seven clause-types (SPC; SPA; SP; SPO; SPOO; SPOC; SPOA) may be grammatical optional. In the following sentences the verb to eat is transferred from the mono-transitive to the intransitive category.
He is eating (SP) vs. He is eating an apple (SPO)
Thus He's eating is an instance of clause-type SP rather than SPO with optional deletion of the object.
The following main complementation types will be considered:
Intransitive: SP - He disappeared
SPAoblig - He crept into the cave
Monotransitive: SPOd - I have read this book
SPOprep - You can rely on him
Ditransitive: SPOiOd - I'll get you a drink
Complex transitive: SPOdCo - He likes his coffee black
Copular: SPCs - She is happy
Many verbs especially those of general meaning such as get, turn, make admit more than one type of complementation:
I'll make some coffee. SPO
I'll make you some coffee. SPOO
She has made the question easy. SPOC
He will make a good teacher. SPC
Intransitive complementation
Verbs having no O or intensive C are intransitive. Semantically, one participant only is involved in the action expressed by the verb functioning as predicator, i.e. the agentive subject. Intransitive verbs can be divided into 2 main classes:
1. Pure intransitives - are almost exclusively intransitive; e.g. arrive, vanish, rise, rain, snow, appear, etc.
Many intransitives express behavior which is typically involuntary or semi-involuntary as the following ones: blink, blush, collapse, cough, cry, die, faint, fall, sleep, slip, smile, sneeze, scream, tremble, yawn.
Other intransitive verbs particularly stance verbs (e.g. stand, live, hang) and verbs of movement (e.g. walk, stroll, trudge, sail, etc.) require a spatial or temporal obligatory expression to complete their meaning:
The Houses of Parliament stand by the river.
2. Verbs used both transitively and intransitively
a) Od or Oi may be left unexpressed when the referent is understood by social convention: to drive (a car), to wave (one's hand), to drink (alcohol), to save (money).
With certain verbs such as to tell and to promise Od and Oi may be omitted when they refer to something already mentioned. This makes them appear monotransitive (I told you) or intransitive (You promised) but they are ditransitive.
b) Verbs which can have a corresponding causative use:
The bell rang - intransitive
Someone rang the bell - transitive
c) Pseudo-intransitives or passivals
They express the properties or potential of an entity to undergo the action expressed by the verb functioning as predicator.
This book reads easily.
This material won't wash.
d) Verbs showing reciprocal participation: join, disagree, meet, kiss
They met at a dance - intransitive
We disagreed on almost every major point
/Vs./
We disagreed with each other on almost every major point.
Ditransitive complementation
Ditransitive complementation involves two objects that are not in a co-referential, intensive relation. The following patterns ca be identified within this type of complementation:
Indirect object + direct noun phrase object
The verbs which take this first subtype are verbs of transferring and verbs of benefiting.
She promised him a rise in salary
She told the children a story
The person who receives the action or benefits from it is placed immediately after the verb as an Oi or it can be placed after the Od as an Oprep. The Oprep contains to when the participant is recipient and for when it is beneficiary. Verbs which take recipient Oi and alternative to Oprep are verbs of transferring goods, services, information from one person to another. They include give, promise, grant, hand, offer, owe, send, write, etc.
He teaches medical students English ~ He teaches English to medical students
I handed her the message ~ I handed the message to her
Verbs which take beneficiary Oi, with an alternative for construction, are verbs of benefiting; these verbs carry out an action on someone's behalf; examples include verbs such as book, bring, buy, fetch, find, get, pour, save, spare, etc.
Book me a seat on the night plane ~ Book a seat on the night plane for me
Compare:
Read it to me. (I receive information)
Read it for me. (Read it on my behalf)
Structures with recipient Oi admit two passives: one with the recipient as S and another with the affected participant as S.
They were offered a donation
The donation was offered to them
Of these two passives, the former is the more common.
With this pattern only the indirect object can be omitted without changing the basic meaning
He gave the girl a doll → He gave a doll
He bought the girl a white hat → he bought a white hat
Indirect objects are typically animate, although this is not always the case, as for example in metaphorical use, where the direct object has a verbal analogue
He gave the car a wash/a kick/a pat ~ He washed/kicked/patted the car
One subset of verbs accepting the pattern under the discussion is distinguished by a different object relation. It includes discourse verbs like ask, teach, tell, as well as pay, owe, show. With these verbs either object can be omitted without significantly changing the basic meaning.
I asked John a question
I asked John
I asked a question
With this subtype a prepositional verb is also possible
I asked a question of John
Od + prepositional object
This pattern includes two main subtypes:
(i) inanimate direct object + animate prepositional phrase object
(ii) animate direct object + inanimate prepositional phrase object
Animate should be understood as 'typically animate'. Unlike ditransitive verbs with non-prepositional object (e.g. give), ditransitive verbs with a prepositional object normally have only one passive analogue
We explained the problem to the children
~ The problem was explained to the children
~ ? The children were explained the problem
We reminded him of the agreement
~ He was reminded of the agreement
~ *The agreement was reminded him
V + NP + prepositional phrase idiom
Verbs belonging in this subtype require a special type of complex object. The verb and the two phrases form a very close, idiomatic unit which has two passive analogues since either of the NP can become the subject of a passive sentence
The owner had made a mess of the house
~ A mess had been made of the house
~ The house had been made a mess of
The former passive is often felt to be more formal. In some cases, it is unacceptable or rare:
They hardly ever made use of this possibility
~ This possibility was hardly ever made use of
~ ? Use was hardly ever made of this possibility
The following list includes some idioms following the pattern V + NP + PrepP:
catch sight of, give place to, give way to, keep pace with, make allowance for, make fun of, make use of, pay attention to, put an end to, set fire to, take advantage of, take care of, take notice of, etc.
NP + finite clause object
With some verbs it is not possible to delete the object realized by a NP
John convinced me he was right
*John convinced he was right
Other verbs admit object omission
John showed me that he was honest
~ John showed that he was honest
The finite clause object can be
(a) that- clause
John assured her (that) he was honest ~ She was assured (that) he was honest
Other verbs accepting this pattern include advice, assure, convince, inform, notify, persuade, promise, remind, show, teach, tell, warn, etc.
(b) wh- clause (usually in negative sentences)
John didn't ask me whether my wife is coming ~ I wasn't ask whether my wife was coming
The difference in meaning between whether- and that- constructions as in
John didn't inform me [whether] his wife was coming
[that ]
can be stated in terms of different presuppositions. That- clauses imply that his wife was supposed to come, whereas whether- clauses are non-committal on this point.
Prepositional phrase + that- clause object
The verbs following this pattern take the preposition to and allow omission of the prepositional object
John mentioned to me that they were sick ~ John mentioned that they were sick
Verbs such as admit, announce, complain, confess, declare, explain, mention, point out, propose, remark, say, state, suggest, etc. also follow this pattern.
Complex transitive complementation
Complex transitive complementation represents a fusion of the monotransitive and intensive types of complementation.
We considered Bill a friend. ~ We considered Bill.
Bill was a friend.
The following patterns can be identified:
Object + noun phrase complement
We considered Bill a friend. ~ We considered Bill.
Bill was a friend.
Some of the verbs that accept complex transitive complementation are: bring up, consider, create, declare, make, think, etc. When 'naming' verbs have unique reference the article is omitted.
They elected John chairman
Similarly after announce, appoint, call, christen, crown, elect, name, pronounce, etc. Many of these verbs have alternative constructions with the copular verb be or with the preposition as
We considered him a genius
~ We considered him as a genius
We considered him to be a genius
Object + preposition + NP complement
The normal preposition is as:
People recognized him as a genius ~ He was recognized as a genius
However, the preposition for also occurs with some verbs. Take has both prepositions but different uses
He took these words as evidence (= to understand/ interpret)
He took me for a fool (= to suppose/ assume wrongly)
Other verbs that require this pattern are listed below together with their dependent prepositions:
accept as, acknowledge as, class as, characterize as, consider as, define as, describe as, intend as, interpret as, know as, mistake for, recognize as, regard as, take as/for, treat as, use as, etc
There is also a different type of prepositional phrase that occurs after certain verbs (e.g. put) which requires an adverbial of some kind.
John put the car in the garage.
The hostess showed me to the door.
Mary placed the vase on the table.
We found the dog at the bottom of the stairs.
In such cases there is an adverbial, but not an intensive relation between the subject and the head of the prepositional phrase.
*The car was the garage.
Object + adjective phrase complement
We may distinguish between 'resulting' verbs like paint and 'current' verbs like consider
We painted the house white. ~ The house was painted white.
They considered the house beautiful. ~ The house was considered beautiful.
Many of the latter have alternative constructions with to be or as + adjectives, whereas resulting verbs do not.
We considered it to be beautiful.
We considered it as beautiful.
*They painted it to be white.
*They painted it as white.
Current verbs Resulting verbs
believe get
call have
consider make
declare paint
find render
imagine
keep
leave
like
prefer
report
think
want
Object + prepositional adjective phrase complement
The teacher described him as hopeless. ~ He was described as hopeless.
Verbs like describe, recognize are likely to have being in the active:
They described the boy as being small
Other verbs following this pattern include: class as, recognize as, regard as, report as, see as, etc.
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