In this unit you will learn:

Coordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating Conjunctions

Number of Nouns

Reading

Read the following fragment from Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen. Pay attention to the conjunctions. Underline the coordinate conjunctions with one line and the subordinate ones with two lines:

Mary wished to say something very sensible, but knew not how.

"While Mary is adjusting her ideas," he continued, "let us return to Mr. Bingley. 727j99h " "I am sick of Mr. Bingley," cried his wife.

"I am sorry to hear that; but why did not you tell me so before? If I had known as much this morning I certainly would not have called on him. It is very unlucky; but as I have actually paid the visit, we cannot escape the acquaintance now." The astonishment of the ladies was just what he wished; that of Mrs. Bennet perhaps surpassing the rest; though, when the first tumult of joy was over, she began to declare that it was what she had expected all the while.

"How good it was in you, my dear Mr. Bennet! But I knew I should persuade you at last. I was sure you loved your girls too well to neglect such an acquaintance. Well, how pleased I am! and it is such a good joke, too, that you should have gone this morning and never said a word about it till now." "Now, Kitty, you may cough as much as you choose," said Mr. Bennet; and, as he spoke, he left the room, fatigued with the raptures of his wife.

Ways with Words

In the last sentence from the text, the preposition with appears. Now learn some expressions containing the preposition with:

with due regard for/ with all due deference to = cu tot respectul cuvenit;

with an eye to = urmărind, fără a pierde din vedere;

with the exception of = cu exceptia că;

with full steam on = cu toată viteza înainte;

with reason = pe drept, pe bună dreptate;

with reference/ respect to = în privinta, referitor, cu privire la;

with a view of = în scopul de a;

as with = la fel ca si;

together with = împreună cu;

to do away with a înlătura, a termina cu.

Now practise these expressions in sentences of your own.

Read the following sentence taken from the same text: she began to declare that it was what she had expected all the while.

How do you translate in all the while? Now learn some expressions with the adjective all.

beyond all doubt = în afară de orice îndoială;

all at once = dintr-o dată;

all the better = cu atât mai bine;

all in all = în întregime, cu totul;

all in good time = toate la timpul lor;

all the more as = cu atât mai mult cu cât;

all over = peste tot;

all worn out = complet uzat;

first of all = înainte de toate;

of all kinds = de toate felurile;

that is about all = ca, asta-i tot;

it is all one to them = le este tot una;

once for all = o dată pentru totdeauna.

Now practise these expressions in sentences of your own.

Grammar Reference 1

The Conjunction

Conjunctions join words, phrases and clauses:

He slipped and fell on the floor.

He moved quickly but quietly.

Please watch my baggage while I buy my train ticket

Coordinating Conjunctions

• Coordinating conjunctions join units that are equal grammatically ( have the same function in the sentence):

He slipped and fell on the floor. (And joins two verbs)

He moved quickly but quietly. (But joins two adverbs)

• Conjunctions both...and, not only... (but also), either...or, neither...nor make the connection more intense. They are also called correlative conjunctions:

Both Lisa and I will go to the party.

Not only did she have two helpings, she also had dessert!

Either my husband or I can drive you home.

Neither money nor power can make him happy.

• The second noun determines the number of the verb with neither... nor and either...or:

Neither the teacher nor THE STUDENTS are allowed to wear jeans.

Neither the students nor THE TEACHER is allowed to wear jeans.

Punctuation with Coordinate Conjunctions

• A comma is not necessary when only two elements (two words, two phrases, two clauses) are joined by a coordinate conjunction.

The doctor told him not to smoke or drink.

• However, if three or more units are joined, use commas after the first and second units. This is called a serial comma.

Men, women, and children are welcome.

It is not compulsory to use a comma before the last unit: Men, women and children are welcome.

Subordinating Conjunctions

• Subordinating conjunctions join elements of unequal rank. Here are some common subordinating conjunctions: after, although, as, as much as, because, before, how, if, since, that, unless, what, when, where, who, whom

She never saw him after he left town.

He got a ticket because he was speeding.

She has been very ill since her operation.

Controlled Practice 1

Complete each sentence with an appropriate coordinate or subordinate conjunction:

A journey to the National Parks of the United States is a rare and unforgettable walk on the wild side. It is to feel once more the power of the old myths, to once again know that the land is the cradle of life, a. .... nature is the hand setting b. ... craddle endlessly rocking.

To the west, on the Olympic Peninsula, is the brooding, primordial coastline of Olympic National Park. The great rocks rising from the sea were once a part of the landmass. c. .... the relentless sea chiseled away the softer stone, creating the haunting monoliths rising from the tides. Along this coast, and beyond, into the Olympic Mountains, is one of the most diverse wilderness areas in North America. Within the park are alpine meadows, majestic white-robed peaks, d. .... some sixty active glaciers slow-sliding their relentless way down from the heights. On the western slopes of the mountains, there is a remarkable rainforest.

In Wyoming are the rugged, majestic battlements and spires of the Teton Mountains. e. .... most mountain ranges, the Tetons have no foothills. They rise dramatically to a height of almost 14,000 feet. Although relatively small, the Colorado River must surely be the most powerful river of them all. For the Colorado River carved the Grand Canyon. To travel from one end of the canyon to the other would be a journey of 277 serpentine miles. Sometimes the walls of the canyon are less than a half mile wide.

Far to the south and the east of the Colorado are the gentle waters of f. .... may be the most unusual river in the world. The Seminoles called it "Pa-hay-okee," g. .... "Grassy Water." Here is the central feature of Everglades National Park. A river that is 100 miles long, 50 miles wide, and averages only 6 inches deep. Slowly flowing through the entire southern reaches of the Florida Peninsula, the Everglades teems with an extraordinary variety of life. Within its labyrinth of cypress swamps, hammocks, islands and hyacinth pools, live more than 350 species of birds.

Sea. Mountain. River. Each has had a powerful impact on human experience. h. .... perhaps the most ancient influence has been the forest. Within the National Parks of North America there are vast reaches of forest. On the slopes of the Sierra Nevada, the giant sequoias are the survivors of a forest realm that has endured for millennia. Some of these patriarchs have stood for more than 2000 years. They are the largest living things on earth. Far to the east, there is a more gentle forest. In the ancient mountains of southern Appalachia, in Shenandoah National Park i. .... in Great Smoky Mountains National Park, are seemingly endless groves of oak, hickory, maple and other hardwoods. To walk these cool, serene, vaulted byways is to feel an intimacy with nature rarely found in this modern world where man and nature are too often strangers. These are softer mountains, laying comfortably on the earth as if sleeping within their counterpanes of mist. The Cherokee called these woodlands "The Place of Blue Smoke."

Bryce Canyon seems like an enchanted city built by mythical giants long departed. There are castles and whimsical skylines, arches, minarets, towers, all cut from stone by the delicate, j. .... powerful hand of water, time and wind. Some of the walls are 600 feet long and 200 feet high. Within the avenues of the city are magnificent silent shapes k. ... seem to have once been alive.

Eighty miles west of Bryce Canyon are the massive walls and towers of Zion National Park. l. .... the formations of Bryce are delicately carved, the temples of Zion seem to have been hacked from the earth with bold, powerful strokes. Vertical canyon walls rise thousands of feet from the valley floor.

m. ...1794, n. ....Captain George Vancouver first explored these shores, the glacier has receded more than 75 miles. No longer shrouded in ice, the bay is a theater where one of nature's most spectacular dramas is performed. Here is where glaciers come to die.

The lands and landscapes of Yosemite are a banquet for the eye o. ....for the soul. Here within the valley and in the high country are stone cliffs towering taller than anything man has made. Waterfalls dance in the heights like angels in lace and then fall thundering through the sunlight into the lap of the valley. Here are glacial lakes and alpine meadows and streams of liquid crystal. Among the marvels of Yosemite are two so powerful they will dwell in the eye of the mind forever.

Grammar Reference 2

Number of nouns

Nouns are made plural by adding:

-s: book-books, tool-tools

-es to singular nouns ending in -s, -z, -x, -ch, -sh, -ss, -o: bus-buses, box-boxes, match-matches, brush-brushes, potato- potatoes (But: photo-photos)

-ves to nouns ending in -f(e): knife-knives, leaf-leaves, shelf-shelves (But: roof-roofs, proof-proofs, cliff-cliffs, handkerchief-handkerchiefs)

-ies to nouns ending in consonant + y: lady-ladies

-s to nouns ending in vowel + y: toy-toys

Note: dwarf-dwarfs/dwarves; hoof-hooves/hoofs; scarf-scarfs/scarves

• Some nouns form their plural irregularly

man-men, woman-women, foot-feet, tooth-teeth, goose-geese, louse-lice, mouse-mice, child-children, ox-oxen, person-people/ persons

• Foreign plurals

- datum-data, medium-media (but: museums, asylums)

- nucleus-nuclei, stimulus-stimuli, genius-genii (spirits)/geniuses (men of genius) (but: bonuses, geniuses, viruses)

- alga-algae, larva-larvae, formula-formulae/formulas (but: dilemmas, villas, diplomas)

- index-indices (algebraic signs) /indexes (tables of contents), appendix-appendices (in books)/appendixes (anatomical)

- analysis-analyses, axis-axes, basis-bases, crisis-crises, diagnosis-diagnoses, hypothesis-hypotheses, thesis-theses

- phenomenon-phenomena, criterion-criteria (but: demons, neurones, protons, ganglions)

• Some nouns remain unchanged in the plural:

Craft, cod, deer, fish, Japanese, means, plaice, salmon, sheep, squid, species, series, spacecraft, trout

• Some nouns are only plural:

1. arms (weapons), belongings, cattle, clothes, congratulations, earnings, goods, groceries, greens (vegetables), lodgings, oats, odds (chances), outskirts, people, police, premises (building), regards, remains, riches, savings, surroundings, thanks, etc.
2. garments, tools and instruments consisting of two parts: binoculars, compasses, glasses, jeans, pants, pliers, pyjamas, scales, scissors, spectacles, trousers, etc.

• collective nouns can take either a singular or a plural verb, according top the meaning.

The staff were not in agreement with the new rules. (We refer to the individual members)

The staff of the school consists of fifty people. (We refer to the group as a unit)

Some collective nouns are:

audience, choir, class, clergy, club, committee, company, crew, crowd, family, firm, government, jury, orchestra, public, team, union, youth, etc.

• Some nouns have different meanings when turned into plural:

Air (atmosphere)-airs (behaviour)

Cloth (a piece of material)-clothes (garments)

Compass (a magnetic compass)-compasses (an instrument for drawing circles)

Content (what is written or spoken about in a piece of writing, speech)-contents (the things contained in a box, place, etc.)

Custom (a traditional event)-customs (the government department which collects taxes on imported goods)

Damage(harm done to something)-damages (monetary compensation)

Experience (gaining knowledge or skill over a period)-experiences (activities/events one has done/lived through)

Fund (a sum of money saved for a purpose)-funds (money)

Glass (a drinking receptacle)-glasses (spectacles)

Hair (the hairy part of the head)-hairs (fine strands growing from the skin)

Look (a style, an expression)-looks (a person's appearance)

Manner (a way in which something is done)-manners (social behaviour; customs)

Minute (sixty seconds)-minutes (notes taken as a record of a meeting)

Relation (a connection)-relations (members of the same family)

Scale (the relative size of something)-scales (an instrument for weighing)

Spectacle (an object of attention)-spectacles (glasses; also specs)

Spirit (a person's soul or mind; a magical creature)-spirits (a person's feelings; a strong alcoholic drink)

Wood (the hard material trees are made of)-woods (small forests)

Work (employment)-works (the moving parts of a machine; a place of manufacturing processes)

Note:

Some of the above nouns have their own regular plurals: minute/minutes

• Compound nouns form their plural by adding -s/-es:

1. to the noun if the compound has only one noun: passer-by - passers-by
2. to the second noun if the compound consists of two nouns: cupboard - cupboards
3. to the first noun if the compound consists of two nouns connected with a preposition: mother-in-law - mothers-in-law
4. at the end of the compound if it does not contain any nouns: breakdown - breakdowns

Controlled Practice 2

Complete this newspaper article. Choose the correct singular or plural form in the brackets:

Clayton Factory for Milchester

The Clayton Clothing Company is going to build a new factory in Milchester. (This/These) (new/news) (was/were) announced by company chairman Mr David Clayton yesterday. Mr Clayton spent the morning in Milchester before returning to the Clayton headquarters at Granby.

The Clayton company (has/have) been in existence for 130 years and (is/are) famous for its "Polymode" (good/goods) The slogans "You're never alone with a pair of Polymode (trouser/trousers)" and "Polymode (jean/jeans) (is/are) the (one/ones) for you" are well known. The company's profit last year of two million pounds (was/were) the highest in the clothing business.

Mr Clayton will not say how (much/many) new (job/jobs) there will be, but the (information/informations) that there will be (work/works) (is/are) hard to find at the moment, and 2,000 unemployed people (is/are) a high figure for a small town.

Make the nouns in these sentences plural. Make all other changes which are necessary:

a. This child is a naughty one.

b. That phenomenon was interpreted by the geologists.

c. I need to buy some kerosene for my stove.

d. When I entered the room, he was taking a   book from the shelf.

e. Where have you put that box?

Select the form you consider appropriate in each of the following sentences:

a. His (brother-in-laws /brothers-in-law) have committed several crimes.

b. Three (basketful /basketfuls) of oranges have been gathered so far.

c. (Ninety-year-olds /ninety-years-old) don't need to use (toothbrushes /teethbrushes).

d. They keep talking about the legend of (men-eaters /man-eaters).

e. The (women doctors /woman doctors) I met there are professionals.

f. Milk has lots of (by-products /bys-products).

g. George didn't count his (footsteps /feetsteps) from the station to the library because he considered it useless.

h. I don't like (two-hour-walks /two-hours-walks).

i. (Mothers-in-laws /mothers-in-law) are considered by some men real shrews.

j. The (commander-in-chiefs /commanders-in chief) decided to surrender.

Fill in the correct plural for the words in brackets:

a. Mars and Venus revolve on their (axis) like the Earth.

b. It can be hilarious if translators make mistakes in their (analysis).

c. (Oasis) save sometimes Bedouins' lives.

d. A great deal of (datum) was stolen from our computers.

e. All grammar books contain (index).

f. Jack will send some (memorandum) to the President.

g. He doesn't like spending his time playing with mathematical (formula).

h. Ten (addendum) had been proposed before they arrived.

i. He knows almost all (genus) of animals.

j. You have to finish your (thesis) before the first of July.

k. As a President, he had to face many international (crisis).

l. The (criterion) of success must be found through experience.