FIRST CERTIFICATE IN ENGLISH

CHECKLIST

© A P Gardner 05.2002

1. AFFIXES - WORD FORMATION

1.1 PREFIXES change the meaning of a word but not its grammatical type, eg verb, noun.

1.2 Six common prefixes reverse the word's meaning: dis-, il-, im-, and in-, ir-, un- . Examples include: disappear, disapproval, disagreeable, illegally, illogical, immoral, immaturity, infallible, inoffensively, irreplaceable, irresponsibility, untidy, unload.

1.3 Other common prefixes include: anti- (= against, opposite), bi- (= two), counter- (= against),

de- (= remove, reverse), ex- (= former, out), extra- (= added), mal- (= badly), mis- (= wrongly),

micro- (= very small), non- (= not), multi- (= many), over- (= too much), post- (= after), pre- (= before), re- (again, away, back), sub- (= below), super- (= above), trans- (= across).

Eg antibiotic, anti-terrorist, biannual, bicentenary, counter-productive, counteract, devalue, deflated, ex-wife, export, malnutrition, maladjusted, microphone, misunderstand, misplace, non-violent, non-cooperation, multinational, multi-storey, overpaid, overstatement, post-war, post-mortem,prehistoric, pre-cooked, resale, repellent, repay, substandard, submarine, supersonic, superstore, transatlantic, transmission, understaffed, underwater.

1.4 SUFFIXES change the grammatical type of the word, not its meaning. Note: -LESS is the main exception and reverses the meaning as well as changing the type.

1.5 Examples include: -able/-ible (changes verb adj), -al (noun adj), -ance (vb n), -ce (adj n), -cy (n n), -dom (adj/ n n), -ed (vb adj), -ee (vb n), -er (vb n), -ery (n n), -friendly (n adj), -ful (n adj), -hood (n n), -ian (n n), -ing (vb nn), -ion (vb n), -ist (n n), -istic (n adj/ n), -ity (adj adv), -ive (vb adj), -less (negative), -ly (adj adv), -ment (vb n), -ness (adj n), -or (vb n), -ous (n adj),

-ship (n n), -side (n n), -ure (vb n), -y (various).

Eg avoidable, invisible, commercial, appearance, clearance, patience, diplomacy, accountancy, freedom, wisdom, retired, injured, employee, trainee, leader, imagery, bribery, beautiful, likelihood, neighbourhood, statistician, musician, acting, inclusion, translation, pianist, extremist, artistic, characteristic, probability, visibility, attractive, evasive, heartless, speechless, announcement, payment, happiness, helpfulness, professor, famous, glamorous, friendship, apprenticeship, roadside, closure, failure, easy, honesty. 1.6 Some words are unusual, eg strong>strength, fly>flight, high>height. Others need care:

economic (eg policy), economical (= cheap), historic (= important), historical (eg evidence).

1.7 Word families: eg (a) help, helper, helping, helpful, helpfully, helpless, helplessly, unhelpful.

(b) use, used, user, user-friendly, abuse, misuse, reuse, disused, unused, useful, useless, reusable, unusable, overused.

(c) light, lighter, lightest, enlighten, enlightenment, enlightening, lighthouse, lightning.

(d) cover, discover, recover, uncover, discovery, discoverer, irrecoverable, irrecoverably.

Note: not all affixes are used, so guessing is dangerous. Also, some words are surprising,

eg a helping (= a portion of food), a lighter (for cigarettes), helpless (doesn't do anything without help). Always check unknown words with affixes in a dictionary.

1.8 Both nouns and adjectives can be formed from two words (compound nouns/ adjectives).

Some examples include: (nouns) raindrop, greenhouse, blackbird, underpass, windscreen, bookseller, wildlife, sunglasses, raincoat, headache; (adjectives) self-centred, self-employed, home-grown, duty-free, heart-broken, well-meaning, good-looking, time-consuming.

2. COMPARISONS

2.1 Adjectives form the comparative by adding "er" and the superlative by adding "est". Use "more" and "most" instead of "er/ est" for adjectives with three or more syllables and for those formed from verbs, eg useful, wanted, boring. Irregular ones include good>better>best; bad>worse>worst. Be careful with spelling: dry>driest; hot>hottest; cheap>cheapest.

Use SO, SUCH, TOO and ENOUGH when there is a result.

Eg (a) The weather was so good that we went swimming every day. (so + adj)

(b) It was such a difficult test that nobody got full marks. (such + a/an + adj + noun)

Remember: such good weather/ food/ advice (no a/an with uncountable nouns)

(c) It's too heavy. I can't lift it. = It's too heavy to lift. = It's too heavy for me.

(d) Our car isn't big enough for our family. (adj + enough)

Use NOT ONLY...ALSO to combine two comparisons: "not only" + verb + subject.

(e) Not only is the train quicker than the bus, it is also cheaper.

2.2 Adverbs ending in -ly use MORE and MOST to form the comparative and superlative. Remember that HARD, FAST and LONG are both adjectives and adverbs; add "er/est" to form their comparatives and superlatives.

Use SO, SUCH, TOO, ENOUGH and NOT ONLY the same as for adjectives.

Eg (a) He braked too quickly and skidded into a tree.

(b) Not only does she work more quickly, she also works more quietly. (note "does")

Note: adverbs can modify adjectives, eg NEARLY finished, COMPLETELY new.

2.3 Use "as + adj/adv + as" to compare two nouns or verbs.

Eg (a) Sarah is as good as her mother at tennis. (b) Paul runs as fast as his brother now.

Modification: (c) She is nearly as good as her sister. (d) He runs almost twice as fast as Tim. Negation: (e) The hotel wasn't nearly as comfortable as the brochure said.

3. CONDITIONAL

3.1 The conditional is easy if you remember two principles, very difficult if you don't.

Principle 1: the tense of the verb must reflect what happens in reality.

Principle 2: we put the verb one step in the past to show the condition is less likely.

3.2 The OPEN conditional - we expect something to happen. We plan. We do something.

Eg (a) If I run (now), I'll catch the bus (later). (If + present simple, future simple)

First I run, later I catch the bus. So the first verb is present, the second is future.

Use "going to" to show a plan. Eg (b) If get the job, I'm going to buy a car.

Use "unless" if the sentence sounds better with it than with "if".

(c) Unless you are more careful, you'll have an accident. ("unless" = "if" + "not")

Use the imperative form for friendly offers.

(d) If you have any problems, call me. (the future cannot express this kind of offer)

3.3 The UNLIKELY conditional - we don't expect a result. It is a possibility, not a plan.

Eg (a) If I ran, I'd catch the bus. (If + past simp, would + inf)

The present simple becomes the past simple; "will + infinitive" becomes "would + infinitive".

Both verbs are one step in the past to show that the condition is less likely.

3.4 Other examples of the UNLIKELY conditional include: advice, speculation.

Eg (a) If I were in your place, I'd own up. (use "were" for all pronouns, "I"..."they")

(b) We would be better off if we moved to London.

3.5 The IMPOSSIBLE conditional - we know it's too late but we want to talk about it.

Eg (a) If I had run, I'd have caught the bus. (If + past perf, would + have + past participle)

Past simple becomes past perfect; would + inf. becomes would + have + past part.

Both verbs are one more step in the past to show that the condition is impossible.

3.6 The MIXED conditional- the condition is impossible but we talk about the situation now.

Eg (a) If I had run, I'd be on the bus now. (If + past perfect, would + infinitive)

We can't use "would + have + past participle", which refers to the past, with "now", which refers to the present. Remember: in (c) the speaker is thinking about the past but in (d), about the present.

This conditional is mixed: "If + impossible conditional, unlikely conditional."

3.7 The WHENEVER conditional - we talk about general habits, not specific cases.

Eg (a) We like to go out on Sundays but if it rains, we stay in.

All the verbs are present simple because we are not talking about a specific case and we are not interested in the order of events. This conditional often uses adverbs of frequency, for example

(b) We go to the mountains at Christmas, but if the roads are blocked, we stay at home.

(c) If you ever need some help, ask me. (I'll help you whenever necessary)

(d) If you aren't sure, you should check. ("should" = obligation)

3.8 Use IF ONLY to add emotion, eg (a) If only I had listened to him. (b) If only she were here.

4. CONNECTING IDEAS - LINKING WORDS

4.1 Words that show time include after, as, before, when. As conjunctions, they don't use the future.

Eg (a) I'll phone you when I get home. (b) She's been working since she got home.

(c) When will she be back? ("when" = question word, not conjunction)

(d) I don't know when she will be back. ("when" is still a question word)

Further words include: until/ till, while/ whilst. Avoid "till" and "whilst", they are difficult.

(e) I'll call the police while you check the flat. (f) Wait here until I get back.

You should also know: each time, the last time, once, the moment, long before, now that,

no sooner...than, hardly...before/ when, by which time, at which point, after which.

Sometimes we miss out words that can be understood, especially "to be".

(g) Check with your doctor if (it is) necessary. (h) While (I was) in town, I saw my aunt.

(i) Boil until (it is) soft. (j) They tried hard, once (they were) convinced it was worth it.

4.2 Words that show purpose include: to/ in order to, in order that, so, so as to, so that.

Eg (a)They had to buy some land in order to build more houses. ("in order to" = "to")

(b) He's studying law so that he can become a judge. ("so that" = " in order that")

(c) We should ban smoking so as to eliminate cancer. ("so as to" = "to")

4.3 Words that show reason include: because, since, as. (They mean the same here)

Eg (a) Since/ As/ it's late, we'll finish now and carry on tomorrow.

Note: avoid using "because" at the start of a sentence: it sounds better in the middle of one.

Further words include: in case, just in case, in that, to the extent that, seeing that.

(b) I'll wait, just in case he comes late. (c) Seeing that it's late, we'll finish here.

(d) It's unfair in that he never warned me. (e) She's free to the extent that her limited income permits.

4.4 Words that show result include: so that. ("so that" can show either purpose or result)

Eg (a) Costs kept rising so that some investors wanted to pull out of the project..

Further words include: and so, so + adj + as to, so much/ few/ many/ little...that.

(b) He's found a better job and so he's bound to be leaving us soon.

(c) It's not so badly damaged as to be irreparable.

(d) There was so much broken glass, that they had to close the shop.

(e) They had so few customers that they went bankrupt in the end.

4.5 Words that show contrast or surprise include: although, though, while, in spite of, even if/ though.

Eg (a) Though she speaks German well, she prefers to speak English.

(b) English is a Germanic language while Romanian is a Romance one.

(c) She did well despite (= in spite of) her ankle injury.

4.6 Words that show place include: where, wherever, everywhere.

Eg (a) wherever you go in London, you'll hear foreign languages.

(b) You can get good food everywhere you go in England nowadays.

4.7 Words that show how the subject does something include: as, like, the way.

Eg (a) I can't understand why he lies as he does. (b) I like the way he cuts my hair.

(c) She speaks French like a native. Also: as though, just as, much as.

(d) It looked as though a bomb had hit it. (e) It's beautiful, just as we expected.

(f) I'm getting used to English, much as I finally got used to French.

4.8 Words that add an idea include: also, as well, as well as, at the same time, besides.

Eg (a) They clean your car as well as repairing it. (They do both jobs)

(b) He speaks French as well as he speaks German. (= to the same standard)

(c) She's very talented. At the same time (= also true) I think she's been lucky.

(d) It's getting late. Besides, I think we're all rather tired.

Some words emphasise that both ideas have the same importance: equally, again.

(e) Every pupil is different and, equally, every teacher is different.

(f) You can borrow from a bank. Again there is risk involved.

(g) Greed undermines satisfaction. In the same way, envy kills joy.

(h) Smoking is addictive. Gambling, likewise, is hard to give up.

(i) Never drive if you are very tired. Similarly, avoid it if you are very upset.

4.9 Words that change direction include: all the same, by contrast, alternatively, even so.

Eg (a) Thanks for your suggestion. All the same, I'll carry on with this for now.

(b) Drink-driving is punished severely. By contrast, speeding is almost accepted.

(c) You can pay in one lump sum. Alternatively, you can pay in instalments.

(d) These pills can have unpleasant side effects. Even so, they're worth trying.

(e) We should encourage him. However, we do need to be a bit careful.

(f) An accident is theoretically possible, though I've never known one happen.

(g) It's expensive, certainly. On the other hand, it's also an investment.

Less used ones include: conversely, nevertheless, nonetheless, on the contrary.

4.10 Words that add a result include: as a result, therefore, thereby, consequently, so.

Eg (a) He couldn't remember names and, as a result, frequently upset people.

(b) This document had been altered and was therefore worthless.

(c) She edited her work carefully, thereby avoiding any errors.

(d) The project ran out of money and, consequently, was abandoned.

(e) He invested his inheritance wisely, so guaranteeing himself a steady income.

4.11 Words that show the order of events include: afterwards, at the same time, earlier,

suddenly, ever since, in the meantime, meanwhile, previously, simultaneously, soon after,

subsequently, beforehand, throughout.

Eg (a) I went to the festival and came home straight afterwards.

(b) To save time, both operations can be done simultaneously (= at the same time).

(c) We missed the train. We should have got up earlier.

(d) They met at college and have been great friends ever since.

(e) I'll study this one later. In the meantime, can you find out what the police know.

(f) Detectives started searching the gallery. Meanwhile, the thief was busy talking to an art dealer. ("meanwhile" introduces another activity happening at the same time)

(g) He was arrested at lunchtime yesterday and charged soon after.

(h) The engine started making strange noises and subsequently stopped.

(i) We really ought to have checked with him beforehand.

(j) They irritated each other and argued non-stop throughout the debate.

(k) He decided to take the risk. Previously, he had been much more cautious.

4.12 Words that modify or correct include: actually, as a matter of fact, as it happens, in fact, you see, after all, as for, with, in the case of.

Eg (a) Don't worry! As a matter of fact, I never liked that vase.

(b) She's done very well this year. In fact, it's time we promoted her.

(c) He's a good friend of the boss; actually, I think they're related.

(d) I'll have a word with him. As it happens, I'm seeing him today anyway.

(e) It was all a misunderstanding: you see, I had no idea she was his wife.

(f) Most of them are good students. As for time keeping, you just can't fault them.

(g) The manager likes a joke. With the supervisor you have to be more careful.

(h) Some infections aren't contagious, but in the case of mumps isolation is essential.

4.13 Words that introduce a new idea include: actually, anyhow, anyway, by the way,

incidentally, look, now, now then, well now, you know.

Eg (a) Anyhow, what's your news. (b) By the way, where is your colleague?

(c) Incidentally, have you seen the latest sales figures? (d) Look, I'll phone him now. (e) Now then (= well now), who would like to start? (f) So, how's your project coming on?

(g) You know we've been thinking about a new secretary? Well, I've got an idea.

4.14 Words that emphasise include: above all, believe me, simply, surely.

Eg (a) Above all, if you're not sure what to do, ask. Don't guess!

(b) Leave your car at home! Believe me, it's too dangerous in this weather.

(c) That's just/ exactly/ precisely what I had in mind.

4.15 Words that weaken an idea include: in a way, in effect, more or less, practically,

to some extent, up to a point, virtually.

Eg (a) It was very similar to the previous accident, in a way. (b) It is, in effect, a mistake in the law.

(c) It's more or less what the experts predicted. (d) We're practically bankrupt.

(e) To some extent I sympathise with him: nobody's perfect, after all.

(f) She's right, up to a point. (g) He's virtually the only experienced technician we've got.

4.16 Words that generalise include: all in all, all things considered, as a rule, basically,

essentially, in general/ generally, on average, on balance, overall.

Eg (a) All things considered, I think we've had quite a good year.

(b) All in all, they seem to have done a very thorough job. Don't you agree?

(c) We don't allow appeals as a rule. (d) Basically, each case is unique.

(e) It'll cost £500,000 at a rough estimate. (f) Generally, the report's accurate.

(g) He solved two cases a month, on average. (h) On balance, it was worth it.

5. MODALS

5.1 Modals show attitudes to facts and people: how sure we are about facts and our relationships with people. Add "not" to form a negative and put the modal before the subject for questions. Common modals are: can, may, shall, will, could, might, should, would, must, ought to.

5.2 Probability - assumptions, belief, certainty, possibility.

Assumptions: add "will" or "would", eg (a) You'll probably have heard the news by now.

(b) You won't know Simon. He's the new accountant. (c) I think he would agree to it.

Belief: use "can't" or "must", e.g. (d) You can't be serious! = You must be joking!

Certainty: add "would/ should", eg (e) Few people would deny that smoking is unhealthy.

Use "shall/ shan't" (first person) and "will/ won't" (second, third person) for the future.

(f) I shan't be home late. (g) It won't cost more to run than our old car.

Possibility: use "could/ may/ might", add "well" to suggest something is more likely.

(h) It could be more expensive than we think. (i) There may be a storm tonight.

(j) He might well resign when he hears the news. (k) You could well be right.

(l) They might not be as co-operative as we expect. (m) She may not be in, I'll see.

Use "can't/ couldn't" for impossibility, eg (n) She can't have got lost. (refers to now)

(o) They couldn't find the file anywhere. (refers to the past)

Use "should/ ought to" for expectation, eg (p) You shouldn't have any problems.

(q) She ought to have known/ should have known better. ("ought to" is more formal)

Use "might/ would + have + verb-ed" for unrealised possibility.

(r) Arguing would have been futile. (We didn't argue because we knew it was futile)

(s) It might have been a good idea but it's too late now.

(t) It wouldn't have made any difference as he had already signed the contract.

In some contexts, "could/ may/ might + have +verb-ed" show uncertainty.

(u) John could have made a mistake. (v) The figures may have been misquoted.

Also: "bound to be", eg (w) The train's bound to be late. (I'm certain)

5.3 Permission: use "can/ could/ 'll be able to" or "may" for formal contexts.

Eg (a) You'll be able to go to Paris next month. (b) Can I use the phone?

(c) Candidates may use calculators. (d) May I ask why my proposal was rejected?

Use "shall/ shan't/ will/ won't" to show determination or authority.

(e) You won't go home early while I'm in charge. (f) I shan't let him argue with me.

Use "shouldn't/ mustn't" to show personal conviction.

(g) Employees shouldn't be rude to customers. (h) You mustn't blame him. He tried.

5.4 Instructions and requests: the difference between the options is gentleness.

Eg (a) Will you photocopy this please. (gentle imperative, not a question)

(b) Would you ask her to phone back later. (gentler than (a), but still imperative)

(c) Could you bring me the bill, please? (politer than (b), assumes co-operation)

But, (d) Could you understand him? (a question; it needs an answer).

(e) Can you deal with this inquiry. (a request; you know the person)

But, (f) Can I help you? (a question; it needs an answer).

Note: "can't/ couldn't" are persuasive, eg (g) Couldn't I do it tomorrow ?

Add "please/ perhaps/ possibly" or the person's name to increase politeness.

(h) Stephen, could you possibly work a bit later today? I really need your help.

Also: "Is it alright to go now?" (polite request)

5.5 Offers and invitations: "can/ shall/ would" are the most common.

Eg (a) Would you like to try it on? (polite) (b) Can I help you at all? (neutral)

(c) Shall I tell Mr Jones that you want to see him? (formal)

Use "wouldn't " to be polite and persuasive, eg (d) Wouldn't you like to come too?

5.6 Suggestions: the differences between the options are strength and register.

Eg (a) You could see your doctor about it. (weak, neutral)

(b) I think you should talk to a solicitor. (strong, neutral)

(c) We really ought to contact the police. (strong, more formal)

(d) You must get your car serviced. Something's wrong with it. (strong, friendly)

(e) It might be worth getting a second opinion. (weak, polite, formal)

Use "couldn't/ shouldn't" to be persuasive, eg (f) Shouldn't we get permission first?

5.7 Intentions: use "will/ will not" or the weaker forms "'ll/ won't".

Eg (a) I'll phone you as soon as I've got an answer. (a weak promise)

(b) He won't sign the cheque! (perhaps we can persuade him)

(c) She will not listen to me! (it's a waste of time - I give up)

(d) Trust me! I will support you at the meeting. (a definite promise)

Also: "I'm determined to...", "He's made up his mind to...", "She set her heart on it".

5.8 Refusals: use "can't/ couldn't/ won't/ wouldn't".

Eg (a) I can't let him take all the blame. (strong conviction; refers to a current problem)

(b) We couldn't vote for someone like that. (moral conviction; refers to possibility)

(c) I won't allow her to talk to you like that. (determination; a current problem)

(d) They wouldn't listen to me so I resigned. (past problem)

Also: "I refuse to...", "They're reluctant/ unwilling to...", "He's not keen on letting..."

5.9 Wishes: use "would like/ wouldn't like/ would rather/ would sooner".

Eg (a) The police would like some information about the incident. (neutral)

(b) I wouldn't like to cause a row but I must do something. (strong)

(c) She'd rather not be transferred to another department. (neutral)

(d) I'd sooner no-one else knew about this if you don't mind. (strong)

5.10 Importance: use "must/ need to/ have to/ should/ ought to" for emphasis.

Eg (a) We must find out what really happened. (urgency) (b) He mustn't escape!

(c) I should make a formal complaint but it's too much trouble. (clear duty)

(d) It ought to be a straightforward investigation. (strong expectation)

Also: "It is essential/ vital that we...", "It is important/ necessary to...", "You had better ask...".

6. PASSIVE

6.1 English uses the order "subject + verb + object", but often the object is more important than the subject and we want it to start the sentence. We do this with the passive.

6.2 To form a passive, start with an active sentence and use the method that follows.

Example sentence: "While detectives were interviewing the suspect, he confessed".

(a) What is the tense of the main verb? Here, it's past continuous.

(b) Use this tense of the verb "to be". That's, "was/ were being".

(c) Add the past participle of the main verb. Here, "interviewed".

(d) Use "by" to introduce the agent (= the one who does the action). Here, "detectives".

(e) Put the object before the verb and check whether it is singular or plural. Our example: "While the suspect was being interviewed by detectives, he confessed". It's important to know the tenses and the form of "to be" for each. Learning the method saves you time in an exam.

6.3 Reasons for using the passive include: not knowing who the subject is; not caring who the subject is; the subject is understood; the subject is everyone; protecting the subject; showing authority.

Eg (a) A priceless painting was stolen last night. (We don't know who but it matters)

(b) Two thousand lorries were built here last year. (Employees' names don't matter)

(c) I've been given a pay rise! (By your employer, we understand)

(d) This medicine should be taken exactly as prescribed. (A message for all users)

(e) Unfortunately, your letter cannot be found. (We protect the person who lost it)

(f) Students are forbidden to use to this car park. (The passive encourages obedience)

Note: often we don't mention the agent at all. Other structures related to the verb are not usually affected, eg going to, can, should. Remember that the method applies to infinitives too, eg "The new shop is going to be opened by the mayor tomorrow". ("to open" becomes "to be opened")

7. PHRASAL VERBS

7.1 A phrasal verb is a common verb (do, go) followed by a preposition (by, of) or an adverb (off, on) or both. Often, the phrasal verb means something completely different from the original verb. A

word is a preposition if it introduces a noun (eg "in a hole") and an adverb if it tells us about a verb

(switch on, turn up). Some words can do both. Eg (a) He never joins in. (verb + adverb) (b) Come on! Join in the fun! (verb + prep.) (c) Don't cross over here. (verb + adverb) (d) Next, cross over the bridge. (verb + prep.)

7.2 If the phrasal verb contains a preposition, the object comes after it. If it contains only an adverb, the object comes before it if it is a pronoun, but either before or after it if it is a noun. If a phrasal verb has an adverb and a preposition, the adverb comes first. Some never have an object.

Eg (a) He got over (prep.) the illness in two weeks. (b) He got over it in two weeks.

(c) Turn off (adverb) the television! = Turn the television off! (d) Turn it off!

(e) I can't get on (adv) with (prep) the manager at all. (f) I can't get on with him at all.

(g) We manage to get by somehow. (no object) (h) The milk has gone off. (no obj)

7.3 Common phrasal verbs follow. There are selected examples every five lines.

Account for (explain), ask after (ask about), bank on (depend on), bargain for (expect), beat up (attack), blow up (explode), boil over (see eg), book in (register at a hotel), break down (engine stops working), break into (force entry), break out of (escape from), bring in (introduce), bring out (start selling), call for (require), carry on (continue), carry out (put into practice), catch out (deceive), catch up (get up to date), check in (register -airport). Eg (a) Peter asked after you at the party. (He asked how you were)

(b) I got more than I bargained for. He sacked me! (The sense is often negative)

(c) Watch the milk! Don't let it boil over! (d) The government called for an enquiry.

(e) He makes lots of threats but he never carries them out.

(f) Can you lend me your book so I can catch up? I've missed two lessons.

Cheer up (make happier), close down (close forever), come across (find by chance), come along (progress), come back (return), come off (succeed), come on (hurry), come up (occur), come round (visit us), count on (depend on), cross off/ out (delete), cross over (a road), cut back (reduce), deal with (accept responsibility for), do without (not have), draw up (prepare a plan), drop in (visit), end up (see eg), explain away (find an excuse). Eg (g) Susan needs cheering up. Let's go and visit her.

(h) How's John coming along at his new school? (i) It was an excellent idea. It just didn't come off.

(j) This sort of problem comes up quite often. Don't worry about it.

(k) I couldn't do without phrasal verbs. Life wouldn't be the same.

(l) We followed her directions but we ended up completely lost.

(m) How's he going to explain all this away? He'll need a very good explanation.

Face up to (accept bad news), fall apart (disintegrate), fall behind (see eg), fall for (be deceived), fall out (end a friendship), fight back (start to do better), fill in (a form), fill up (eg a car with petrol), find out (discover), finish up (end up), get away with (escape punishment), get by (just survive), get on (progress),

get on with (work or person), get over (recover), get round to (see eg), get through (telephone link). Eg (n) He'll have to face up to it. He's now out of work.

(o) This suit's only a month old and it's starting to fall apart. I think I'll take it back.

(p) The trouble with missing lessons is that you soon fall behind. Catching up's hard.

(q) England are still a long way behind but they're fighting back well. (football match)

(r) She's always late for work. I don't know how she gets away with it.

(s) I've got to repair my car. I hope I'll get round to it this weekend.

Give in/ up (stop trying), give away (don't take money for), go about (start something), go along with (agree with), go away (leave), go in for (like, eg a hobby), go off (go bad, stop liking someone), go on (continue), go out (lights), grow up (become adult), hand in (see eg), hand out (distribute), head for (go towards), help out (help), hold on (wait), hurry up (go faster), join in (participate), keep to (a limit), knock out (eliminate). Eg (t) They're giving away chocolate at the supermarket! Come on!

(u) I wish he would go away. I haven't got time to talk to him now.

(v) Don't forget to hand in your application forms before you go!

(w) She thinks she's being clever but I reckon she's heading for disaster.

(x) David's a very unsociable person. He should join in the fun sometimes.

(y) The roads are very icy. I think you should keep to about 50 mph.

(z) Unfortunately, England was knocked out of the competition in the second round.

Leave out (omit), let down (disappoint), let off (not punish), lie down (rest), live up to

(maintain a reputation), look ahead (look at the future), look down on (disregard),

look forward to (verb-ing), look into (investigate), look out (be careful), look up to (admire),

be made of (material), make up (invent, decorate face), be made up of (consist of),

mess up (cause chaos), mix up (confuse), pass round (distribute), pay up (pay a debt).

Eg (a) Don't leave out any important details. (b) The judge let him off as it was his first offence.

(c) Champions find it hard to live up to their reputations. (d) Sadly, the strike's messed up their plans.

(e) It sounds like he's got his figures mixed up somewhere.

(f) There's no point complaining, we'll just have to pay up. We've got no choice.

Phase in (introduce gradually), pick out (select), pick up (collect), play back (play again), point out (say something important), put forward (propose), put off (delay), put out (upset; extinguish a fire), put up (accommodate), put up with (tolerate), rule out (ignore), run away (escape), run into (meet by chance), run out of (have no more), run over (drive over), run up against (meet a problem), see to (deal with), set about (start doing something). Eg (g) The new rules are going to be phased in next year.

(h) She pointed out that the new car would be very expensive to produce.

(i) We can't rule out the possibility that he is lying. He may be hiding something.

(j) Someone has to tell the police. Can you see to it? (k) How do I set about getting citizenship?

Set aside (keep as reserve), set back (delay), set off (an alarm, from somewhere), set out (leave, aim), set up (get ready for use), settle down (be calm, feel at home), shop around (find the best price), show off (impress others), shut up (stop talking - it's rude), slip up (make a mistake), sort out (solve), stand in for (replace at work), stay up (not go to bed), switch off/ on (radio, light...), take after (be like), take back (return, cancel). Eg (l) We ought to set aside some money for emergencies.

(m) It took me about a year to settle down in the city.

(n) I think he's slipped up somewhere. His calculations don't make sense at all.

(o) Who's standing in for Paul while he's on holiday ?

Take in (deceive), take on (accept work), take over (take control of), take up (start a hobby), talk over (discuss), tear off (detach), tear up (paper), tell off (correct a person), think over (consider), throw away/ out (rubbish), tidy up (make tidy), tip off (give vital info), trip over (fall over), try on (clothes), turn off/ on/ down/ up (radio...), turn down (refuse), turn into (become), wash up (dishes), wear out (become useless), wind up (irritate - informal), wipe up (dry dishes), work out (see eg), write off (see eg).

Eg (p) Please tear off and return the attached slip. (q) I tore up the bill by mistake. (r) I had to tell him off twice yesterday. He's really naughty.

(s) Detectives were tipped off by an anonymous caller late last night. (t) Try the jacket on if you like it. (u) It's a great offer. Don't turn it down! (v) I need a new coat. This one's worn out. (w) Don't let him wind you up! It's a joke. (x) Let's hope it all works out well in the end. (y) Don't worry! I'll work something out.

(z) We'll have to write the car off. It's just not worth repairing. The damage is too bad.

8. PREPOSITIONS - AT, BY, IN, ON, TO.

8.1 AT uses an exact time, age or place. Use it for "weekend", "Christmas" and "Easter".

Eg (a) Even at sixty, he could run well. (b) What are you doing at the weekend/ at Christmas?

We use it to talk about ability, eg (c) She's good at French. (d) I'm no good at maths.

Note: "at home", "at work" and "at school" don't mean someone is there every minute.

The verbs "point" and "aim" use "at", eg (e) The gun was aimed at me.

8.2 BY has three main uses: the passive, a time limit, near to a place.

Eg (a) The idea was put forward by the marketing director.

(b) Please be back by ten o'clock. (c) I'll be waiting by the telephone box.

8.3 IN uses a period of time or a whole building or area.

Eg (a) They're getting married in June. (we don't know exactly which day)

(b) It was built in the seventies. (= 1970 - 79) (c) He died in 1996. (within that year)

(d) She finally retired in her eighties. (= between the ages of 80 and 89)

(e) He's in the school somewhere. (inside the building, not just "at school")

8.4 ON has four main uses: a day/ date, location, television, a subject/ hobby.

Eg (a) She was born on 12 January, 1976. (b) We normally meet on Fridays.

(c) It's on the television. (= on top of ) (d) There's a good film on television tonight.

(e) Can you lend me a book on Japan? (f) She's giving a talk on computers.

Note: "on leave" is a formal form of "on holiday". Use, "The ball hit him ON the head".

Remember "on duty", "on the right of the picture", "on my own".

8.5 TO has four main uses: the infinitive, to show purpose, to show direction, with "from".

Eg (a) I'd like to learn Spanish. (b) He bought it to make life easier for his mother.

(c) I'm going to Leeds today. (d) It's open from 8 am to 5 pm daily. (also days, years)

9. REPORTED SPEECH

9.1 The two important principles are:

(a) try to keep as much of the original message as possible;

(b) don't make the language more complicated unless it adds meaning.

9.2 The guidelines are:

(a) if the reporting verb (ask, say...) is in the past, put all the verbs one step in the past;

(b) spoken questions cannot be questions in reported speech, they become statements.

(c) questions with yes/ no answers are introduced by "if" or "whether";

(d) adverbs of time and place (today, here...) are changed (that day, there);

(e) instructions (Wait! Don't touch!) become infinitives (to wait, not to touch).

9.3 The following examples demonstrate these points.

Eg (a) "I think John has gone home" He said he thought John had gone home.

(b) "Where is the station?" She asked him where the station was.

(c) "Are you going to church?" He asked her if she was going to church.

(d) "He'll be here tomorrow." She said he would be there the next day.

(e) "Stop! Don't touch that vase!" He told her to stop and not to touch that vase.

9.4 If the reporting verb is in the present, don't change verb tenses.

Eg (a) "You can both go home now." He says we can both go home now.

(b) "Is the manager in today?" She wants to know if the manager is in today.

(c) "I've just seen him. He's here." She says he's just seen him and he's here.

9.5 Some verb forms cannot be put further into the past, eg the past perfect, could (polite).

Eg (a) "If the bridge had been strengthened, it wouldn't have fallen down." (unchanged)

(b) "Could you come as well?" He asked her if she could come as well.

(c) "Would you like to come, too?" He asked me if I would like to come too.

9.6 Sometimes it's best to keep the language simple.

Eg (a) "My father died when I was three." He said his father died when he was three.

Not "He said his father had died when he had been three"

(b) "I really think we should support him." He said we really should support him.

(c) "I suggest that we buy the design."> He said we should buy the design.

9.7 After a reporting verb in the past, "must" becomes "had to", "mustn't" becomes

"wasn't allowed to", "could/ couldn't (ability)" becomes "had/ hadn't been able to".

Eg (a) "I couldn't find him." She said she hadn't been able to find him.

(b) "You must be more careful." He said I had to be more careful.

(c) "John mustn't let me down." She said John wasn't allowed to let him down.

10. SPEAKING (FCE PAPER FIVE)

10.1 The FCE speaking test has four parts: social conversation involving both candidates and the examiner; each candidate talking separately about pictures; both candidates doing a task together; conversation with the examiner about the task and related ideas.

10.2 The best way to do well is:

(a) listen carefully to the examiner and make sure you know what he wants you to do;

(b) co-operate well with your partner and concentrate on having a good conversation;

(c) participate enthusiastically and involve your partner regularly (except part 2);

(d) use what your partner says and explain your own opinions intelligently;

(e) keep to the task and try to complete it within the time allowed.

Also, it's usually helpful to start each task with a brief introduction and to end it with a clear conclusion. Try to link your ideas and, if a task has more two or more parts, link them with a suitable sentence. Don't translate or guess; use what you know. Remember to use a variety of language: use everything you know.

11. STRUCTURE & PLANNING

11.1 Well structured compositions divide an issue into paragraphs, which deal with one theme each and connect to give a balanced treatment of the issue. Each paragraph contains sentences that have one main idea and combine to cover its theme. Planning a composition means identifying good themes and ideas related to each one, and then forming these into paragraphs.

Example exam question:

"Write a report on attitudes to television in your country."

Themes: (one option) television is for pleasure; it is for information; it fills up spare time.

Ideas: pleasure - variety (sport, quiz shows, films); freedom (we choose); conflict (we can't agree)

information - comprehensive (almost all we want); convenient; reliable.

spare time - nothing else to do; undemanding; low quality.

This simple plan shows how an issue can be divided into paragraphs, each representing an attitude to television, with ideas for each one. The conclusion and introduction depend on how the ideas are used.

11.2 A good paragraph introduces its theme in its first sentence, or even in the last sentence of the previous paragraph. It deals thoroughly with its theme without involving material covered in other paragraphs or irrelevant to the theme. It contains its own conclusion and is clearly linked to adjacent paragraphs.

11.3 A good sentence has one main idea and only contains information relevant to this idea. Points supporting the main idea are kept together and are separated from points opposing the main idea. Eg (a) "As the car was cheap and I could repair it myself, I bought it, despite its age and poor condition." This sentence has two points (price, repairs) supporting the main idea (I bought it) separated from the two points opposing it (age, condition) by the main idea itself. Try other options and see how you think they sound. Although the main point needs a grammatical sentence, the other points can be reduced to smaller word groups by avoiding conjunctions. Words like "despite" let us do this.

Eg (b) "Bad weather meant fewer visitors than we hoped for but the festival was a success since it was fun and raised lots of money." Here, the two opposing points come first but are separated from the supporting ones (fun, money) by the main idea (success).

11.4 Planning is essential for good writing, both in real life and in exams. A plan saves you running out of ideas, repeating yourself or failing to answer the exam question. A good plan ensures your answer fits the exam question, is easy to follow, has a good effect on the reader, uses a variety of language and has few errors. A good plan saves you losing marks and helps you get the best mark you are capable of. You have 45 minutes for each answer at FCE; use ten minutes for planning.

11.5 First understand what the examiner wants you to do. You need to know who you are writing to (friend, stranger, newspaper...), what your aim is (money refund, invitation, publicity...) and what to include (news, opinions, feelings...). It may help to underline the key words in the question.

11.6 Divide the words available (150) between your introduction, middle and conclusion. Note what you need to include in the middle and divide these points into paragraphs. Write a conclusion that follows logically from the middle and, if necessary, tells the reader exactly what you want to happen next. Modify your conclusion until it is the best you can do. Then choose an introduction that prepares the reader for your letter/ article/ story/ report and catches his interest. 11.7 Think of two lists: a list of your common mistakes and a list of language you want to include. The first one may include word order, simple/ continuous, double consonants, adjective/ adverb... anything you often get wrong. The second list should include conditional, passive, reported ideas, phrasal verbs, modals and anything that shows the examiner what you know. Remember: it's your job to give the examiner evidence of what you know. He'll be happy to give you the mark you deserve.

11.8 Now write your answer, checking these lists as you write. Use items on the second list naturally and don't overuse them. Do NOT change your plan as this will cause confusion and extra work.

11.9 When you have finished writing, check your work. Only change something if you are sure it is wrong. If in doubt, leave what you wrote first time. After years of learning English, you develop an instinct for what is right and this can be more accurate than your knowledge of rules.

11.10 EXAM WRITING TASKS: guidance for each main type of writing task follows ARTICLE: (a) carefully identify the information you need to include and divide it into paragraphs

(b) add feelings, experience or atmosphere to make the article entertaining

(c) emphasise your main points so that the reader remembers them

(d) choose titles and subtitles that encourage reader interest.

(e) check that your article balances information and interest, and looks appealing.

LETTER: (a) clarify who you are writing to and your relationship with him: friend? client? boss?

(b) identify what you need to say and divide it into paragraphs

(c) write a conclusion that fits the middle of your letter and says what you want to happen next

(d) use the introduction to prepare the reader for the whole letter

(e) a friendly letter is warm, kind and practical: it includes greetings and best wishes

(f) a business letter is clear, calm and respectful: it includes explanation and is convincing.

REPORT: (a) clarify the purpose and conclusion of your report in your mind

(b) organise the information in clear, logical paragraphs that lead the reader to your opinion

(c) write a conclusion that summarises your main points and states your view

(d) write an introduction that covers the aims and conclusion of your report

(e) ensure your writing is formal, factual, convincing and clear.

STORY: (a) decide on the action and characters, without trying to include too much

(b) choose an eye-catching first sentence and keep a surprise for the end

(c) make your story believable and keep the reader guessing until the end

(d) don't change your story once you start writing and create an appropriate atmosphere.

12. TENSES

TALKING ABOUT NOW

12.1 We use the present simple for: things that are true now (time, date, health), things that

are always true (facts from geography or science) and habits (what we usually do).

Eg (a) It's her birthday today. (b) I'm tired/ hungry/ scared. (c) Wales is more mountainous than England. (d) She always helps me when I'm stuck.

12.2 We use the present continuous for current activities.

Eg (a) What's your brother doing? (b) Where are you going? (c) We're wasting time.

12.3 We use the present perfect simple for past actions that have a result now and for states (weather, health...) that started in the past and are still true now.

Eg (a) I'm sorry but I've hurt my foot and I can't play football this afternoon.

(b) It has been a mild winter so far. (c) He's been ill all week.

12.4 We use the present perfect continuous for activities that started in the past and are unfinished or continuing, and also for temporary states. Eg (a) I've been learning French for six years. (b) She's been skiing since she was ten. (c) We've been living in rented property for too long.

TALKING ABOUT THE PAST

12.5 We use the past simple for single and repeated past actions, and past states.

Eg (a) He came home late last night. (b) We went swimming every day. (c) It was cold.

12.6 We use the past continuous for interrupted past activities, two simultaneous past activities and added information in a story. Eg (a) She was doing her homework when I arrived.

(b) I was mending your bicycle while you were playing volleyball.

(c) It was getting dark by the time we left. (d) They were playing chess when the alarm went off.

12.7 We use the past perfect simple when there are two different times involved in an idea and we choose not to use the true order of events. It often adds an explanation.

Eg (a) He was hungry. He hadn't eaten for a day. (b) I trusted him as he had never let me down before.

We use this tense in a story to refer back to something that happened earlier.

(c) The trip was just what they needed. The idea had first occurred to them while they were fishing.

12.8 We use the past perfect continuous for activities that started at one time in the past and were interrupted or unfinished at a more recent time in the past.

Eg (a) We had been climbing for two days when bad weather forced us to turn back.

(b) Suddenly the rain started. They had been praying for it for over eight weeks.

TALKING ABOUT THE FUTURE

12.9 We use the present simple for public transport and timetables.

Eg (a) What time does your train leave? (b) We've got a test tomorrow.

Use "due to" for something that should happen soon, "about to" if it's very soon.

(c) The train's due to leave in ten minutes. (d) The train's about to go! Come on!

12.10 We use the present continuous for arrangements that are certain.

Eg (a) The inspector's coming on Wednesday. (b) We're seeing the new play tonight.

12.11 We use "going to" for plans that are not certain, eg we need permission or money.

Eg (a) He said I was going to be promoted. (b) They're going to build a new bypass.

12.12 We use the future simple for things outside our plans, eg other people's decisions.

Eg (a) Who do you think will win the match? (b) I'll phone him now. (spontaneous, not planned)

It is also used for actions and states at a time in the future.

Eg (c) I'll get the tickets at lunchtime. (d) It'll be dark when you come back. Take care!

12.13 We use the future continuous for activities at a time in the future.

Eg (a) Meet me at the old bridge at ten. I'll be waiting for you.

(b) In two weeks' time, I'll be swimming in the Mediterranean.

Note: time conjunctions (when, while, as soon as, in case.) don't use the future. (c) While you are sunbathing on a beach next week, I'll be working in the office.

13. VERBS WITH UNUSUAL FORMS

13.1 The verb TO BE ABLE TO has the extra forms CAN and COULD. Use "can" in the present. There are six options in the past: could, could have, was able to, and their negatives.

Could + infinitive = it was possible but we don't know if it was ever necessary. Eg (a) The hospital was designed so that everyone could escape easily in case of fire.

Couldn't + infinitive = it wasn't possible.

(b) The computer was programmed so that it couldn't make a mistake.

Could have + past participle = an unrealised wish or an unwanted possibility.

(c) The team could have won the competition. (What we wanted didn't happen)

(d) It could have been my fault. (I hope not but it is a possibility)

Couldn't have + past participle = the speaker is certain but someone may disagree.

(e) It couldn't have been an accident. It was done deliberately.

Was/ were able to = it was possible and it happened.

(f) Thankfully, rescuers were able to save the whole crew of the sinking ship.

Wasn't/ weren't able to = someone tried but failed. Perhaps it wasn't even possible.

(g) Unfortunately, he wasn't able to break the record. It was a daring attempt though.

Note: "could" is either a polite request or a past ability. In reported speech, the request

doesn't change but past ability becomes "had/ hadn't been able to".

13.2 The verb TO HAVE TO has the extra form MUST for the present tense only. Eg (a) I must eat less! I'm getting fat. (must = important for me, positive)

(b) I mustn't forget to phone my sister. (mustn't = important for me, negative)

(c) You have to pay to park here. (have to = there is a rule, positive)

Note: the rule may be a rule of life, not written anywhere but unavoidable.

(d) You have to work hard to pass this exam. (have to = a rule of life)

(e) I don't have to wear a uniform. (don't have to = there is no rule so I choose)

(f) Students mustn't be late for lessons. (mustn't = there is a rule, negative)

So, "mustn't" can mean a negative rule or something negative that is important for me.

Also, "must" and "mustn't" become "had to" and "wasn't allowed to" in reported speech.

13.3 For past habits use: USED TO + infinitive; GET USED TO + verb-ing; BE USED TO + verb-ing.

Eg (a) My father used to get up very early every day. (for a time in the past)

(b) I got used to working in all kinds of weather. (hard at first but it got easier)

(c) I was used to driving around London, even in rush hour. (it seemed easy)

Also, (d) She usually went to work by train. (but not always)

So, all four forms have a slightly different meaning. They can be used in other tenses.

Eg (e) I'm sure I'll get used to it within a few days. (f) He's used to his new boss now.

Note that (b) and (c) can use a direct object; eg (g) Eventually, I got used to his moods.

13.4 We use GET and HAVE when we pay someone else to do something for us.

Eg (a) We're getting our roof repaired next week. (get + object + past participle)

(b) They had their house redecorated last month. (have + object + past participle)

Note: "have" works for all tenses but "get" is only for present and future.

13.5 For NEED there are two different past forms.

Eg (a) I didn't need to remind him. (It wasn't necessary and I didn't do it)

(b) You needn't have bought any bread. (It wasn't necessary but you did it)

14. WORDS THAT CAUSE PROBLEMS

14.1 Be careful with BEFORE, BY and UNTIL.

Use BEFORE to show the order in which two actions occur, or should occur.

Eg (a) Can you see me before you go home? (b) Do your homework before you go out!

Use BY to specify a deadline, either a time or a day. (c) I must have the report finished by Friday. Use UNTIL to cover a whole period of time.

(d) Can you look after him until I get back? (e) We'll have to use the stairs until the lift is fixed.

14.2 There are differences between AVERAGE, COMMON, NORMAL, ORDINARY, ROUTINE, TYPICAL and USUAL. The following sentences show how to use each of them.

Eg (a) Her average mark was high. (calculation) (b) It's a common mistake. (frequent)

(c) It's not the normal procedure but I'll make an exception this time. (standard, correct)

(d) It's just an ordinary town. (nothing special) (e) It's just a routine inquiry. (Don't worry!)

(f) It's typical of him to say that. He's always the same. (what we expect, or close to it)

(g) I had to wait over an hour because my usual train was cancelled. (implies habit)

14.3 Be careful with SAY, TELL, TALK, SPEAK and ANNOUNCE.

We use SAY for the actual words used, even if we don't quote all of them.

Eg (a) He said that I needed an operation. (He used the words, "You need an operation".)

We use TELL when the message is important, not the actual words.

(b) She told me not to worry about the report. (We don't know her actual words)

Note that TELL must be followed by a person or people. (c) What did the solicitor tell you?

We use TALK to cover the volume, speed and clarity of someone's voice. (d) I wish he would talk more slowly.

We use SPEAK for foreign language ability. It can also replace TALK.

(e) She speaks French like a native.

Use ANNOUNCE only when information is made public, use TELL when you give information to a particular person or group of people.

(f) The election results will be announced tomorrow morning. (anyone can get them)

(g) The president announced his resignation early this morning.

But: (h) Please tell Peter that the trip's been cancelled.

14.4 You REMIND other people of things but you REMEMBER things yourself.

Eg (a) Can you remind me to phone Peter today? I might not remember to do it.

14.5 Use ON TIME for "as planned" or "punctual" and IN TIME as the opposite of "too late".

Eg (a) Please be on time for the meeting. We don't want to start late.

(b) We had to hurry to get to the airport in time for our flight.

14.6 Be careful with MEET, WAIT, EXPECT, HOPE, LOOK FORWARD TO.

Use MEET for collecting people. Eg (a) Don't bother with a taxi. I'll meet you at the station.

Use WAIT when everything stops until what you are waiting for happens.

(b) I can't go out now. I'm waiting for a phone call. (c) Can you wait for me?

Use EXPECT when life carries on until it happens.

(d) I'm expecting to hear from the company soon. (But life goes on as usual until then)

Use HOPE for something positive but uncertain. (e) He hopes they'll promote him this year.

Use LOOK FORWARD TO for something positive, certain and usually in the near future.

(f) They're looking forward to moving into their new house. (Note: use verb-ing; "moving")

14.7 Articles: A, AN, THE

Use A if the first sound is a consonant, AN if it is a vowel.

Eg (a) a university/ union/ unique occasion/ UFO; an hour/ honour/ honest man/ X-ray

Use THE when the description comes after the noun.

Eg (b) I like the music we heard last night. (c) I like music/ Romanian music.

Use THE for somebody or something unique or specific.

Eg (d) the Queen, the President, the Pope (e) the Himalayas, the Thames, the Black Sea

(f) the economy (= ours), the Irish economy (= that country's). 14.8 Be careful with: each, every, either, neither, all, both, and none.

Eg (a) Please take one each. (pronoun) (b) Each item is priced. (like an adjective)

(c) Every guest was given a complimentary theatre ticket. (never a pronoun)

(d) She's EITHER guilty OR she's not. (e) It's NEITHER cheap NOR efficient.

(f) They are both quite costly. (g) Both of them came. (h) Take them both.

(i) Both police officers were hurt. (BOTH is flexible but always refers to two).

(j) All the items marked are reduced. (ALL usually uses an article, BOTH often doesn't)

(k) He had given them all away. (BOTH for two, ALL for more than two)

(l) None of the thieves was caught. (NONE is always singular, it means NOT ONE)

(m) "I can't swim." "NEITHER can I/ I can't EITHER." (short form of agreement)

14.9 Use OBEY for authority, FOLLOW for instructions and RESPECT for concern for people.

Eg (a) We've got to obey the law: it's as simple as that. (b) You've got to obey the boss.

(c) It's an easy machine to use if you follow this procedure/ these instructions.

(d) People should be respected, not laughed at, however strange their opinions.

14.10 INTERVIEW is neutral, QUESTION suggests guilt, INTERROGATE implies intimidation.

Eg (a) As an experienced journalist, she regularly interviewed senior politicians.

(b) Detectives spent hours questioning the four suspects.

(c) The spy was interrogated several times to see if he varied his answers.

14.11 Remember: ALLOW, CAUSE and FORCE use TO, but LET and MAKE don't.

Eg (a) She wasn't allowed to go. (b) It caused/ forced her to resign. ("force" is stronger)

(c) They didn't let him appeal. (d) It made him reconsider his decision.

Note: CAUSE + person + object is also possible, eg (e) It caused me quite a problem.

14.12 Use NO MATTER to show that one thing doesn't depend on another.

Eg (a) I'm buying that car no matter what he says. ("no matter" + question word)

(b) We always go by train no matter how long it takes.

END